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TRANSLATIONS 

OF 

CHRISTIAN  LITERATURE 


THE  LIBRARY 
OF  PHOTIUS 


VOLUME  I. 


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J,  H.  FREESE 


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TRANSLATIONS   OF   CHRISTIAN    LITERATURE 

General  Editors  :  W.  J.  SPARROW  SIMPSON,  D.D., 

W.  K.  LOWTHER  CLARKE,  B.D. 

SERIES   I 
GREEK    TEXTS 


PHOTIUS 


VOL.  I. 


( 


\ 


i 


J 


TRM51AnO¥^  OF  CFM^TIM 
LITERATirRE .  $EBIES  I 

GREEK  TEXT5 


THE  LIBRAKY 
OF  PHOTIUS 

VOLUMEI 


Sy  JHFREESE. 


SOCIETY  FOR  PROMOTING 
CHRISTIAN  KNOWLEDGE.  London 
The  Macmillan  Corapanu  .l^evv\ork 

1920 


ipanu 


\s^o^^ 


Printed    in    Great    Britain     by 

Richard  Clay    ^^  Sons,  Limited, 

brunswick  st.,  stamford  st.,  s.e.  i, 

and  bungay,  suffolk 


/  9  20 
/ 


PREFACE 

It  is  proposed  to  issue  the  present  translation  of  the  Biblio- 
theca  of  Photius  in  five  volumes ;  a  sixth  will  contain  an 
account  of  his  life  and  works,  a  Bibliography,  and  a  General 
Index  to  the  whole. 

A  translator  of  the  Bihliotheca  has  apparently  an  open  field. 
So  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  no  complete  version  exists  in 
English  or  any  other  modern  language,  although  there  are 
English  translations  or  editions  of  some  of  the  longer  extracts 
[e.g,  Ctesias'  Indica),  of  some  of  the  literary  criticisms,^  of 
selected  codices  (chiefly  on  profane  authors)  in  Italian  by  G. 
Compagnoni,^  a  well-known  Milanese  literary  man  and  states- 
man (1754-1834),  and  of  the  whole  in  Latin  by  the  learned 
Jesuit  Andreas  Schott^  in  Migne's  Patrologia  Graeca  (vol.  ciii.). 

The  text  *  is  unfortunately  in  many  places  unsatisfactory,  and 
no  critical  edition  has  been  attempted  for  nearly  a  hundred 
years — since  1824,  the  date  of  Immanuel  Bekker's  edition. 
The  nature  of  the  work,  a  sort  of  enlarged  table  of  contents, 
often  leaves  the  meaning  and  connexion  obscure,  when  there 
exist  no  complete  texts  ^  or  other  means  of  supplementing  it. 

^  G.  Saintsbury,  History  of  Criticism,  i.  176  ;  La  Rue  van  Hook  in  Trans- 
actions of  the  American  Philological  Association  (xxxviii.  1907)  and 
Classical  Philology  (iv.  Chicago,  1909),  and  here  and  there  in  books  such 
as  Hodgkin's  Italy  and  her  Invaders,  Bury's  Later  Roman  Empire, 

^  Vols.  xlv.  xlvi.  oi  Biblioteca  Scelta  di  opere  greche  e  latine. 

^  Born  and  died  at  Antwerp  (i  552-1629).  After  a  wandering  life  he  finally 
settled  down  as  professor  of  Greek  at  the  Jesuit  college  in  his  native  city. 
He  was  an  indefatigable  translator  and  editor.  The  translation  of  Photius 
is  of  unequal  merit,  and  it  is  supposed  that  in  parts  it  is  the  work  of  a 
young  and  less  competent  colleague. 

*  See  E.  Martini,  Textgeschichte  der  Bibliothek  dts  Patriarchen  Photios 
(1911). 

'  It  would  be  difficult,  for  instance,  to  get  a  clear  idea  of  the  story  of 
Heliodorus's  Theagenes  and  Chariclea  from  Photius's  abstract  alone. 


vi  PREFACE 

The  present  translator,  in  the  endeavour  to  obtain  as  satis- 
factory a  rendering  as  possible,  has  constantly  consulted  the 
most  important  literary,  theological,  and  historical  works  and 
encyclopaedias  bearing  on  the  wide  field  covered  by  the  exten- 
sive reading  of  Photius.  Naturally,  there  is  little  scope  for 
elegance  of  translation,  and  in  the  literary  criticisms  it  is  by  no 
means  easy  to  find  a  correct  and  adequate  English  equivalent 
for  the  terms  used. 

In  the  matter  of  notes,  the  number  of  personal  and  geo- 
graphical names,  of  historical  allusions,  is  so  large  that  any 
attempt  to  deal  with  them  at  length  would  have  swamped  the 
text  and  reduced  it  to  a  kind  of  peg  on  which  to  hang  a  minia- 
ture encyclopaedia.  In  the  case  of  persons  familiar  to  all  only  a 
brief  note  has  been  given,  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  identifi- 
cation (often  necessary  where  there  are  several  persons  of  the 
same  name),  so  that  those  desirous  of  further  information  should 
know  for  whom  to  look  in  the  usual  biographical  and  other 
dictionaries.  In  the  case  of  names  less  familiar  and  points 
arising  directly  from  the  text,  the  details  given  are  somewhat 
fuller.  In  the  Bibliography  a  Hst  of  the  most  useful  general 
works  of  reference  and  of  special  editions  or  accounts  of  the 
authors  criticised  in  the  Bibliotheca  will  be  given.  The  present 
work  makes  no  claim  to  contain  a  complete  exegetical  or  critical 
commentary,  but  is  a  somewhat  free  translation  intended  to 
give  the  ordinary  reader  an  idea  of  the  literary  activity  of  the 
chief  representative  of  the  so-called  Byzantine  Renaissance. 


ALPHABETICAL   LIST   OF   AUTHORS 
CRITICISED    IN    VOL.    I 


Achilles,  Tat  i  us.  Clitophon 
and  Leucippe  (LXXXVII) 

Acts  of  the  disputation  of  heretics, 
held  before  John,  patriarch  of 
Constantinople  (XXIV) 

Adrian  (Hadrian).  Introduction  to 
the  Scriptures  (II) 

Adrian  (Hadrian),  emperor.  De- 
clamations (C) 

Aeschines.  Orations  and  Letters 
(LXI) 

Against  the  Jews  and  Quarto- 
decimans.     Anonymous  (CXV) 

Amyntianus.  On  Alexander  the 
Great  (CXXXI) 

Andronicianus.  Against  the  Euno- 
mians  (XLV) 

Aphthonius.  Declamations 
(CXXXIII) 

Apolinarius  of  Hierapolis.  Against 
the  Heathen,  On  Piety  and 
Truth  (XIV) 

Apology  for  Origen  and  his 
Doctrines.  Anonymous  (CXVII) 

Appian.     Roman  History  [l^V  11) 

A  r  r  i  a  n  .  Parthica,  Bithynica, 
Discourses  of  Epictetus  (LVIII) ; 
Indica,  Campaigns  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  (XCI);  Events 
after  the  Death  of  Alexander 
(XCII) ;  Bithynica,  The  Acts  of 
Dion  and  Timoleon  (XCIII) 

Athanasius.  Letters  (XXXII) ; 
Commentary  on  Ecclesiastes  and 
the  Song  of  Songs  (CXXXIX); 
Against  Arius  (CXL) 


Basil  of  Cilicia.  Ecclesiastical 
History  (XLII) ;  Against  John 
Scythopolita  {CYU) 

Basil  the  Great.  Refutation  of 
Eunomius  (CXXXVIII) ;  Asce- 
tica  (CXLIV)  ;  Hexaemeron 
(CXLI)  ;  Moral  Discourses 
(CXLII)  ;  Letters  (CXLIII) 

Boethus.  List  of  Platonic  Words 
(CLIV);  Doubtful  Words  in 
Plato  (CLV) 


Caius  (Gaius)  Presbyter.  On  the 
Universe  (XLYll I) 

Candidus.     Histories  (LXXIX) 

Cephalion.  Historical  Epitome 
(LXVIII) 

Charinus,  Lucius.  Travels  of  the 
Apostles  (CXIV) 

Choricius.     Declamations  (CLX) 

Clement  (Titus  Flavius  Clemens), 
presbyter,  of  Alexandria.  Out- 
lines (CIX);  The  Tutor  (CX)  ; 
Stromateis  (CXI) 

Clement  (Clemens  Romanus), 
bishop  of  Rome.  Apostolic 
Constitutions,  Recognitions 
(CXII,  CXIII) ;  Epistles  to  the 
Corinthians  (CXXVI) 

C  o  n  o  n.  Against  Philoponus 
(XXIII) 

Cosmas  Indicopleustes.  Christian 
Topography,  Exposition  of  the 
Octateuch  (XXXYI) 

Ctesias.     Persica  (LXXII) 


Vll 


viii     ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORS  CRITICISED 


Cyril  of  Alexandria.  Against 
Nestonus  (XLIX) ;  Thesauri 
(CXXXVI) 

Damascius.       Incredible     Things 

(CXXX) 
Dexippus.     Events  after  the  Death 

of  Alexander,  Historical  Epi- 
tome {LXXXU) 
Diodorus.     Lexicon    to    the    Ten 

Orators  (CL) 
Diodorus  Siculus.     History  (LXX) 
Diodorus  of  Tarsus.     On  the  Holy 

Spirit  (CII) 
Dio(n )  Cassius.     History  {I.XXI) 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus.  History 

(LXXXIII,  LXXXIV) 
Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  Aelius. 

Attic  Words  (CLII) 
Dorotheus.       New    and    Foreign 

Words  in  Plato  (Cl^VI) 

Epiphanius.  Panaria  (CXXII), 
Ancoratus  (CXXIII) ;  Weights 
and  Measures  (CXXIV) 

Eugenius.  Against  Philoponus 
(XXIII) 

Eunapius.  Chronicle  (continuing 
Dexippus)  (LXX VI I) 

Eunomius.  Heretical  treatise 
(CXXX VII);  its  refutation  by 
Basil  (CXXXVIII) 

Eusebius  (sophist).  Declamations 
(CXXXIV) 

Eusebius  of  Caesarea.  Various 
Writings  (IX-XIII);  Ecclesias- 
tical History  [XXN II) -,  Against 
Hierocles  (XXXIX) ;  Defence  of 
Origen  (CXVIII);  Life  of 
Constantine  (C XXVII) 

Eusebius  of  Thessalonica.  Against 
Andrew  the  Monk  (CLXII) 

Evagrius.  Ecclesiastical  History 
(XXIX) 

Gaius,  see  Caius 

Galen.  On  Medical  Schools 
(CLXIV) 

Gelasius  of  Cyzicus.  Proceedings 
of  the  First  Synod  (XV)  ;  Eccle- 
siastical History  (LXXXVIII)  ; 


Preface  to  Additions  to  the 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  Euse- 
bius (LXXXIX);  Against  the 
Anomoeans  (CII) 

George,  bishop  of  Alexandria. 
Life  of  John  Chrysostom 
(XCVI) 

Gregory  of  Nyssa.  In  Support  of 
St.  Basil  against  Eunomius 
(VI,  VII) 

Heliodorus.    Aethiopica  (LXXIII) 
Helladius.     Lexicon  (CXLV) 
Ileraclian,     bishop   of    Chalcedon. 

Against  the   Manichaeans 

(LXXXV) 
Herodian.     History  (XCIX) 
Herodotus.     History  (LX) 
Hesychius   Illustrius   (of    Miletus). 

History,    Acts    of    Justin    the 

Elder  (LXIX) 
Hesychius  (presbyter,  of  Constanti- 
nople).       Discourses     on     the 

Brazen  Serpent  (U) 
Himerius.     Declamations  [CLXV) 
Hippolytus     Romanus.       Against 

Heresies  (CXXI) 

lamblichus.  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis 

(XCIV) 
Irenaeus.      Against    Heresies 

(CXX) 
Isocrates.     Orations  (CLIX) 

John  Chrysostom.  Letters  to 
Olympias  and  Others  CLXXXYI) 

John  Philoponus.  On  the  Resur- 
rection (XXI)  ;  On  the  Creation 
(XLIII) ;  Against  the  Fourth 
Synod  (LV);  Against  John 
Scholasticus,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople (LXXV) 

John  (presbyter,  of  Aegae).  Eccle- 
siastical History (XLl);  Against 
the  Fourth  Synod  (LV) 

John  Scythopolita.  Against  the 
Eutychians  (XCV) 

Josephus.  On  the  Universe 
(XLVIII);  On  the  Jewish  War 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORS  CRITICISED    ix 


(XLVII) ;  On  the  Antiquities  of 

the  Jews  {LXXYl) 
Julian.       Lexicon     to     the      Ten 

Orators  (CL) 
Julius  Africanus.  History  (XXXIV) 
Justin  Martyr.     Apology  (CXXV) 
Justus   of  Tiberias.     Chronicle   of 

the  Jewish  Kings  (XXXIII) 

Lesbonax.  Political  Orations 
(LXXIV) 

Lexica.  Of  the  Pure  Style 
(CXLVI);  Of  the  Serious  Style 
(CXLVII);  Of  Political  Style 
(CXLVIII) ;  Of  the  Ten  Orators 
(CXLV-CLIX) 

Libanius.  Orations  and  Letters 
(XC) 

Lucian.  Various  Works.  Dia- 
logues of  the  Dead  and  Of 
Courtesans  iCXXVlIl) 

Lucius  of  Patrae.  Metamorphoses 
(CXXIX) 

Malchus.     History  (LXXVIII) 
Maximus.  Declamations  (CXXXV) 
Metrodorus.     On  Easter  (CXV) 
Moeris.     The  A  tticist  ( C  LVI I ) 

Nicephorus,  patriarch  of  Constanti- 

n  o  p  1  e  .      Historical    Epitome 

(LXVI) 
Nicias  (the  monk).    Against  Philo- 

ponus,       Severus,       and       the 

Heathen  (L) 
Nonnosus.     History  (III) 

Olympiodorus.     History  (LXXX) 

On  the  Easter  Festival  (Anony- 
mous) (CXVI) 

Orators,  the  ten,  Lexica  to  (CXLV- 
CLIX) 

Origen.  On  First  Principles 
(VIII) 

Palladius.  Declamations 

(CXXXII) 
Pamphilus.     Apology   for  Origen 

(CXVIII) 
Pausanias.     Lexicon  (CLIII) 


Philip  of  Side.  Christian.'History 
(XXXV) 

Philo  Judaeus.  Allegories  of  the 
Sacred  Laws  and  On  Political 
Life  (GUI)  ;  On  the  Essenes 
and  Therapeutae  (CIV);  His 
Censure  of  the  Emperor  Gaius 
and  Flaccus  (CV) 

Philostorgius.  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory (XL) 

Philostratus  of  Tyre.  Life  of  A  pol- 
lonius  of  Tyana  (XLIV) 

Phlegon  of  Tralies.  List  of  Olym- 
pic Victors  and  Chronicle 
(XCVII) 

Phrynichus  the  Arabian.  Oratorical 
Equipment  (CLVIII) 

P  i  e  r  i  u  s  Presbyter.  Various 
Writings  (CXIX) 

Pollio.     Lexicon  (CXLIX) 

Polycarp.  Letter  to  the  Philip- 
pians  (CXXVI) 

Praxagoras.  Life  of  Constantine 
the  Great  (LXII) 

Proceedings  of  the  bishops  of  the 
West  against  the  Nestorians  and 
Pelagians  (LIV) 

Procopius  of  Caesarea.  Histories 
(LXIII) 

Procopius  of  Gaza.  Orations  ; 
Translations  of  Homer  (GLX) 

Sergius         Confessor.  History 

(LXVII) 
Socrates.      Ecclesiastical  History 

(XXVIII) 
Sopater.     Excerpts  (GLXI) 
Sophronius.     In  Defence  of  Basil 

against  Eunomius  (V) 
Sozomen.     Ecclesiastical    History 

(XXX) 
Synesius.     Writings  (XXVI) 
Synod  of  "  The  Oak  "  (LIX) 
Synod  ofSide(LII) 
Synods,   third,   fourth,    fifth,    sixth 

and  seventh  (XVI-XX) 

Themistius.  Commentaries  on 
A  ristotle  and  Plato  ;  Political 
Orations  (LXXIV)  ;  Apology 
for  Theophobius  (CVIII) 


X     ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  AUTHORS  CRITICISED 


Theodore    of    Alexandria,    monk. 

Against  Themistius  (CVIII) 
Theodore  of  Antioch.     In  Defence 

of    Basil     against    Eunomius 

(IV) ;  Commentary  on  Genesis 

(XXXVIII);  On  Persian  Magic 

(LXXXI) 
Theodoret.    Ecclesiastical  History 

(XXXI,        LVI),         Eranistes 

(XLVI) 
Theodoras      Presbyter.       On     the 

Writings     of    Dionysius     the 

Areopagite  (I) 


Theodosius,  monk.     Against  John 

Philoponus  (XXII) 
Theognostus  of  Alexandria,     Out- 
lines {CY  I) 
Theophanes  of  Byzantium  (LXIV) 
Theophylact  Simocatta  (LXV) 
Timaeus.    Platonic  Lexicon  {Chi) 

Victorinus,  sonof  Lampadius.   Con' 

sular  Orations  (CI) 
Vindanius   Anatolius.     Works    on 

Husbandry  (CLXIII) 

Zosimus,  Count.  History  {XCVlll) 


CHRONOLOGICAL   TABLES 

{Down  to  the  ti??ie  of  Photius) 


ROMAN  EMPERORS 


Augustus 

Tiberius 

Gaius     . 

Claudius 

Nero     . 

Galba 

Otho 

Vitellius 

Vespasian 

Titus 

Domitian 

Nerva  . 

Trajan  . 

Hadrian 

Antoninus  Pius 

Marcus  Aurelius 

Commodus    . 

Pertinax 

Didius  Julianus 

Septimius  Severus 

Caracalla 

Macrinus 

Elagabalus     . 

Alexander  Severus 

Maximinus     . 

The  two  Gordians 

Pupienus  and  Balbinus 

Gordian  III 


27  B.C. 

Philip    .... 

•     244 

A.D.    14 

Decius  .... 

•     249 

•        -37 

Gallus    .... 

•     251 

.     41 

Aemilianus    . 

•     253 

.       54 

Valerian   \ 
Gallienus  J     ' 

.     260 

68-69 

Claudius 

.     268 

.        .      69 

Quintillus\ 
Aurelian  /    * 

.     270 

.      79 

Tacitus .... 

.     275 

.      81 

Probus  .... 

.     276 

.        .       96 

Carus     .... 

.     282 

.         .       98 

Carinus  and  Numerian  . 

.     283 

.     117 

Diocletian 

.     284 

.        .     138 

(with  Maximian) 

.     286 

.     161 

Constantius  and  Galerius 

•     305 

.     180 

Licinius  and  Constantine  I 

•     311 

# 

Constantine  I 

•     324 

.     193 

Constantine  11 

Constantius  II  h     . 

•     337 

.    211 

Constans           J 

.     217 

Constantius  II 

•     350 

.     218 

Julian    .... 

.    361 

.    222 

Jovian   .... 

•    363 

•    235 

-        .     238 

DIVISION  OF  THE  EMPIRE 


West 
Valentinian  I  .         .         .     364 

Gratian  and  Valentinian  II    .     375 
Valentinian  II        .         .         .     383 

Theodosius  I . 


East 


Valens  . 
Theodosius  I . 


364 
379 


392 


XI 


xu 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES 


West 
Honorius 
Valentinian  III 
Maximus 
Avitus   . 
Majorian 
Severus . 
Anthemius 
Olybrius 
Glycerius 
Julius  Nepos 
Romulus  Augustulus 
[End  of  the  Western  Empire] 


East 


395 
423 
455 
455 
457 
461 
467 
472 

473 

474 

475 
476 


Arcadius 
Theodosius  II 
Marcian 

Leo  I     . 


Leo  II 


Zeno 

Anastasius 
Justin  I , 
Justinian  I 
Justin  II 
Tiberius  II 
Maurice 
Phocas  . 
Heraclius 
Constantine  III 
Heracleonas 
Constans  II 
Constantine  IV 
Justinian  II 
Leontius 
Tiberius  III 
Justinian  II  (restored 
Philippicus  Bardanes 
Anastasius  II 
Theodosius  III 
Leo  III . 
Constantine  V 
Leo  IV  . 
Constantine  VI 
Irene 

Nicephorus  I 
Michael  I  Rhangabe 
Stauracius 
Leo  V   . 
Michael  II 
Theophilus 
Michael  III 
Basil  I  . 
Leo  VI  . 


395 
408 

450 

457 


to 


474 


474 
491 

518 
527 
565 

578 
582 
602 
610 
641 
641 
642 
668 
685 

695 
698 
throne)  705 
711 

713 
716 

717 

741 

77S 
780 

797 
802 

811 

811 

813 
820 
829 
842 
867 
886-911 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES 


Xlll 


PATRIARCHS   OF   CONSTANTINOPLE 


{F7-07n 

315^) 

Metrophanes  . 

•     315-327 

Eutychius  (re-elected) 

•     577-582 

Alexander 

.     327-340 

John  IV  the  Faster 

•     582-595 

Paul  I     .         .         . 

•     340-341 

Cyriacus  . 

.     595-606 

Eusebius 

.     341-342 

Thomas  I 

.     607-610 

Paul  I  (re-elected)  . 

•     342-344 

Sergius    . 

.     610-638 

Macedonius  I . 

•     342-348 

Pyrrhus  I 

.     638-641 

Paul  I  (re-elected)  . 

348-350 

Paul  II   . 

641-654 

Macedonius  I  (re-elected 

)    35^^360 

Pyrrhus  I  (re-elected) 

•         655 

Eudoxius 

•     360-369 

Peter 

.     655-666 

Demophilus    .   - 

•     369-379 

Thomas  II       . 

667-669 

Evagrius 

369-370 

JohnV   . 

669-675 

Gregory  I 

379-381 

Constantine  I . 

•     675-677 

Maximus 

.         381 

Theodore  I 

677-679 

Nectarius 

•     381-397 

George  I 

6  79-686 

John  I  Chrysostom 

•     398-404 

Theodore  I  (re-elected)  . 

686-687 

Arsacius 

404-405 

Paul  III 

.     688-694 

Atticus   . 

■     405-425 

Callinicus  I     . 

694-705 

Sisinnius  I 

426-427 

Cyrus 

705-712 

Nestorius 

.     428-431 

John  VI . 

.    712-71S 

Maxim  ian 

•     431-434 

Germanus  I     . 

■     715-730 

Proclus    . 

•     434-447 

Anastasius 

730-754 

Flavian  . 

•     447-449 

Constantine  II 

■     754-766 

Anatolius 

•     449-458 

Nicetas  I 

766-780 

Gennadius  I    . 

458-471 

Paul  IV 

78(^784 

Acacius  . 

.     471-489 

Tarasius 

784-806 

Fravitta  (Flavitta)  . 

489-490 

Nicephorus 

806-815 

Euphemius 

490-496 

Theodotus 

815-821 

Macedonius  II 

•     496-511 

Antonius  I 

821-834 

Timotheus  I    . 

511-518 

John  VII 

834-843 

John  II  of  Cappadocia 

518-520 

Methodius  I    . 

843-847 

Epiphanius 

52c^536 

Ignatius  (Nicetas)  . 

847-858 

Anthimus  I     . 

536 

Photius  .         .         .         . 

858-867 

Menas     .         .         .         . 

536-552 

Ignatius  (re-elected) 

867-878 

Eutychius 

552-565 

Photius  (re-elected) 

878-886 

John  III  of  Antioch 

565-577 

] 

POPES   OF   ROME 

Marcellus 

307-309 

Julius  I  . 

337-352 

Eusebius 

309 

Liberius 

352-366 

Miltiades 

310-314 

Felix  II  . 

355-358 

Silvester 

314-335 

Damasus 

366-384 

Marcus    . 

336 

Siricius  .         .         .         . 

384-398 

1  There  is  a  considerable  discrepancy  as  to  dates  in  different  authorities.  The  dates 
here  given  and  those  of  the  Popes  are  from  Krumbacher,  Geschichte  der  byzantinischen 
Liieratur  {liig-]). 


XIV 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES 


Anastasius  I 

398-402 

Vitalianus 

.^    657-672 

Innocent  I 

402-417 

Deodatus  II 

.     672-676 

Zosimus . 

417-418 

Domnus  I 

.     676-678 

Boniface  I 

418-422 

Agathon 

.     678-681 

Coelestine  I 

422-432 

Leo  II  . 

682-683 

Sixtus  III 

432-440 

Benedict  II     . 

684-685 

Leo  the  Great 

440-461 

John  V  . 

685-686 

Hilarius 

461-468 

Conon    . 

686-687 

Simplicius 

468-483 

Sergius  I 

687-701 

Felix  III 

483-492 

Tohn  VI 

.     701-705 

Gelasius  I 

.    492-496 

John  VII 

.     705-707 

Anastasius  II 

.     496-498 

Sisinnius 

708 

Symmachus 

.    498-514 

Constantine  I 

•     708-715 

Hormisdas 

■     514-523 

Gregory  II 

715-731 

John  I    . 

.     523-526 

Gregory  III 

731-741 

Felix  IV 

•     526-530 

Zacharias 

741-752 

Boniface  II 

•    53c>-532 

Stephen  II 

752 

John  II  . 

•    532-535 

Stephen  II  (III)     . 

752-757 

Agapetus  I 

•    535-536 

Paul  I     .         .         .         . 

757-767 

Silverius 

.    536-538 

Constantine  II 

767-768 

Vigilius  . 

•    537-555 

Stephen  III  (IV)    . 

768-772 

Pelagius 

555-560 

Hadrian  I       .         .         . 

772-795 

John  III 

560-573 

Leo  III. 

795-816 

Benedict  I 

•    S7A-S7^ 

Stephen  IV  (V)      . 

816-817 

Pelagius  II 

578-590 

Paschal  I         .         .         . 

817-824 

Gregory  I  the 

Grea 

t 

590-604 

Eugenius  II    . 

824-827 

Sabinianus 

.    604-606 

Valentinus 

827 

Boniface    III 

607 

Gregory  IV    .         .         . 

827-844 

Boniface  IV 

.    608-615 

Sergius  II        .         .         . 

844-847 

Deodatus  I 

.    615-618 

Leo  IV  . 

847-855 

Boniface  V 

.    619-625 

Benedict  III  . 

855-858 

Honorius  I 

.    625-638 

Nicholas  I       .         .         . 

858-867 

Severinus  I 

640 

Hadrian  II 

867-872 

John  IV . 

.    640-642 

John  VIII       . 

872-882 

Theodore  I 

.    642-649 

Martin  II 

882-884 

Martin  I 

649-655 

Hadrian  III    . 

884-885 

Eugenius  I      .        .         .     654-657 

Stephen  V  (VI)      . 

885-891 

OECUMENICAL   COUNCILS 

I.  Nicaea      ....     325 

5.  Constantinople 

•    553 

2.  Constantinople           .         .     381 

6.  Constantinople . 

.    680 

3.  Ephesus    .         .         .         .431 

7.  Nicaea 

.    787 

4.  Chalcedon 

• 

. 

•    451 

8.  Constantinople. 

.    869 

PHOTIUS 

BIBLIOTHECA   OR   MYRIOBIBLONi 

Register  and  enumeration  of  the  books  read  by  us,  279  in  number, 
of  which  our  beloved  brother  Tarasius  desired  to  have  a  summary.^ 

Photius,  to  his  beloved  brother  Tarasius,  in  the  name  of  the 
Lord,  greeting. 

My  dearest  brother  Tarasius, 

After  our  appointment  as  ambassador  to  Assyria  ^  had 
been  confirmed  by  the  assent  of  the  embassy  *  and  approved  by 
the  emperor,  you  asked  to  be  furnished  with  summaries  of  those 
works  which  had  been  read  and  discussed  during  your  absence. 
Your  idea  was  to  have  something  to  console  you  for  our  pain- 
ful separation,  and  at  the  same  time  to  acquire  some  knowledge, 
even  if  vague  and  imperfect,  of  the  works  which  you  had  not 
yet  read  in  our  company.  We  believe  that  their  number  is 
exactly  279.  Accordingly,  regarding  the  fulfilment  of  your 
request  as  a  sacred  obligation,  we  engaged  a  secretary,  and  set 
down  all  the  summaries  we  could  recollect.  No  doubt  we  have 
not  been  expeditious  enough  to  satisfy  your  feverish  eagerness 
and  vehement  desire,  but  still  we  have  been  quicker  than  might 
have  been  expected.  The  summaries  will  be  arranged  in  the 
order  in  which  our  memory  recalls  them.     Certainly,  it  would 

^  For  the  life  and  works  of  Photius  see  Introduction  to  vol.  vi. 

2  The  genuineness  of  this  title  is  disputed. 

2  To  the  caliph  of  Bagdad  ;  according  to  others,  to  Persia,  or  one  of  the 
Eastern  emirs  (Bury). 

*  irpeafi^la  cannot  mean  "senate,"  as  Schott  renders  it  (senatus),  but  is 
probably  "the  body  constituting  the  embassy,"  a  number  of  others  nomi- 
nated for  the  mission,  to  whom  Photius  was  persona  grata^  and  who  ex- 
pressed a  wish  that  he  should  accompany  them.  This  explanation  is  due 
to  the  kindness  of  Professor  J.  B.  Bury. 


i6  THEODORE  THE   PRESBYTER 

not  be  difficult,  if  one  preferred  it,  to  describe  historical  events 
and  those  dealing  with  different  subjects  under  separate  head- 
ings. But,  considering  that  nothing  would  be  gained  by  this, 
we  have  set  them  down  indiscriminately  as  they  occurred  to 
us.^  If,  during  your  study  of  these  volumes,  any  of  the 
summaries  should  appear  to  be  defective  or  inaccurate,  you 
must  not  be  surprised.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  undertake  to 
read  each  individual  work,  to  grasp  the  argument,  to  remember 
and  record  it ;  but  when  the  number  of  works  is  large,  and  a 
considerable  time  has  elapsed  since  their  perusal,  it  is  extremely 
difficult  to  remember  them  with  accuracy.  As  to  the  common- 
places met  with  in  the  course  of  our  reading,  so  simple  that 
they  can  hardly  have  escaped  your  notice,  we  have  devoted 
less  attention  to  them,  and  have  purposely  refrained  from 
examining  them  carefully.  You  will  be  better  able  than  our- 
selves to  decide  whether  these  summaries  will  do  more  than 
fulfil  your  original  expectations  as  to  their  usefulness.  Certainly, 
such  records  will  assist  you  to  refresh  the  memory  of  what  you 
have  read  by  yourself,  to  find  more  readily  what  you  want,  and 
further,  to  acquire  more  easily  the  knowledge  of  what  has  not 
as  yet  been  the  subject  of  intelligent  reading  on  your  part. 

12 

Read  the  treatise  of  Theodore  the  Presbyter,^  in  which  he 
undertakes  to  prove  the  genuineness  of  the  works  of  St.  Dionys- 
ius.  The  following  arguments  against  it  are  refuted:  (i)  I. 
they  are  genuine,  how  is  it  that  none  of  the  later  Fathers  cites 
them  or  quotes  any  passages  from  them?  (2)  How  is  it  that 
Eusebius  Pamphili,*  in  his  list  of  the  writings  of  the  Holy 
Fathers,  does  not  mention  them  ?  (3)  How  is  it  that  these 
treatises  describe  in  detail  rites  and  customs  which  only  became 

^  The  text  is  corrupt. 

*  These  sections  are  usually  alluded  to  as  Codices  (manuscripts).  Codices 
were  originally  wooden  tablets  {catidex,  codex,  a  block  or  slab  of  wood) 
coated  with  wax  and  divided  into  "  leaves,"  which,  when  wood  was  super- 
seded by  parchment  or  other  writing  materials,  developed  into  the  book, 
as  contrasted  with  the  roll-form  [vohoneti)  of  MSS. 

^  Nothing  further  is  known  of  his  life  or  writings. 

*  The  famous  ecclesiastical  historian,  Eusebius  bishop  of  Caesarea 
{c.  260-340),  who  assumed  as  his  surname  the  name  of  his  intimate  friend, 
literary  adviser  and  assistant,  Pamphilus,  presbyter  of  Caesarea,  and  martyr 

(309). 


NONNOSUS  17 

established  in  the  Church  gradually  and  after  a  long  time  ?  The 
great  Dionysius,  as  is  clear  from  the  Acfs,^  was  contemporary 
with  the  Apostles  [whereas  most  of  the  institutions  described 
only  became  established  gradually  and  in  later  times] ;  it  is 
therefore  improbable  (says  the  objector),  or  rather  a  clumsy 
fiction,  to  assert  that  Dionysius  could  have  undertaken  to 
describe  institutions  which  were  not  fully  developed  till  long 
after  his  death.  (4)  How  is  it  that  a  letter  of  the  divinely- 
inspired  Ignatius 2  is  referred  to?  for  Dionysius  flourished  in 
the  time  of  the  Apostles,  whereas  Ignatius  suffered  martyrdom 
during  the  reign  of  Trajan,  and  wrote  the  letter  referred  to 
shortly  before  his  death.  Theodore  endeavours  to  solve  these 
difficulties  and  does  his  best  to  prove  the  genuineness  of  the 
treatises.^ 

II 

Read  Adrian's  (Hadrian's)  Introduction  to  the  Scriptures^^  a 
useful  book  for  catechumens. 


Ill 

Read  the  History  of  Nonnosus,^  containing  a  description  of 
his  embassy  to  the  Aethiopians,  Amerites,®  and  Saracens,  then 
a  most  powerful  nation,  as  well  as  to  other  Eastern  peoples. 
At  this  time  Justinian  was  emperor  of  the  Romans,  and  Caisus 
chief  of  the   Saracens.     This    Caisus    was   the   grandson   of 

^  xvii. 

2  Bishop  of  Antioch  [c.  70-107). 

^  These  mystical  treatises,  ascribed  to  "  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,"  were 
at  one  time  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  the  Dionysius  mentioned  in  the 
Acts,  who  was  subsequently  identified  by  some  with  St.  Denis,  the  first 
bishop  of  Paris  and  the  patron  saint  of  France  But  it  is  now  generally 
agreed  that  they  were  written  about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  when  the 
writings  of  the  neo-Platonist  Proclus  exercised  great  influence,  and  that 
the  name  is  an  assumed  one. 

■*  This  treatise,  probably  written  by  a  Greek-speaking  Syrian  monk,  who 
flouiished  about  425,  is  hardly  an  intioduction  to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures 
in  the  modern  sense.  It  is  rather  an  aid  to  the  correct  understanding  of  the 
language  of  the  Bible,  dealing  with  questions  of  meaning,  style,  com- 
position and  metaphors,  and  concluding  with  some  rules  of  interpretation 
[see  edition,   with  translation  and  commentary,  by  F.   Goessling,   Berlin, 

1887). 
■^  Nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 
*  The  Homerites  (Himyarites)  of  the  Yemen. 

VOL,  I.  B 


i8  NONNOSUS 

ArctliJis,  himself  a  cliicf,  to  whom  Nomiosus's  grandfather  was 
sent  as  amhassador,  during  the  reign  of  Anastasius,  toconchide 
a  treaty  of  peace.  Nonnosus's  father  Ahrames^  had  in  like 
manner  been  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Alamundarus,'-^  chief  of 
the  Saracens,  during  the  reign  of  Justin,  and  was  successful  in 
procuring  the  release  of  Timostratus  and  John,  two  Roman 
generals  who  were  prisoners  of  war.  ('aisus,  to  whom 
Nonnosus  was  sent,  was  chief  of  two  of  the  most  illustrious 
Saracen  tribes,  the  Chindeni  and  Maadeni.  IJefore  Nonnosus 
was  apiK)inted  ambassador,  his  father  had  been  scut  to  this 
same  ('aisus  by  Justinian,  and  had  concluded  a  treaty  of 
peace,  on  condition  that  Caisus's  son  Mavias  should  be  taken 
as  a  hostage  to  liyzantium.  After  this,  Nonnosus  was  en- 
trusted with  a  threefold  mission  :  to  Caisus,  to  induce  him,  if 
possible,  to  visit  the  emperor,  to  T^lesbaas,  king  of  the 
Axumites,  and  to  the  Amerites.  Axumis  ^  is  a  very  large  city, 
and  may  be  considered  the  capital  of  Aethiopia  ;  it  lies  more 
S.  and  K.  than  the  Roman  empire.  Nonnosus,  in  spite  of  the 
treacherous  attacks  of  tribesmen,  perils  from  wild  beasts,  and 
many  difficulties  and  dangers  on  the  journey,  successfully 
accomplished  his  mission,  and  returned  in  safety  to  his  native 
land.' 

He  relates  that  Caisus,  after  Abramcs  had  been  sent  to  him 
a  second  time,  set  out  for  liyzantium,  having  previously 
divided  his  chieftaincy  between  his  brothers  Ambrus  and 
Yezid.  He  brought  a  large  number  of  his  subjects  with  him, 
and  was  appointed  administrator  of  Palestine  by  the  emperor. 

He  tells  us  that  the  ancient  name  for  what  are  now  called 
aavSdXia  (sandals)  was  npjSvXai,  and  that  ^aKtoAtov  (turban) 
was  called  (fi(urt^Ai.<i/' 

He   tells  us  that  most  of  the  Saracens,  those  who  live  in 

'  The  name  points  to  the  family  heing  of  Semitic  origin,  although  he  was 
proliably  a  convert  to  C^hristianily. 

"  Al-Mundir,  chief  of  the  Saracens  of  Ilira. 

•'  Modern  Axu/n,  now  the  capital  of  the  Abyssinian  province  of 
'I'igre.  It  contains  numerous  antiquities  and  inscriptions,  and  is  still 
regarded  as  a  holy  city.  Christimity  was  introduced  into  Acthio]iia 
as  early  as  the  fourth  century  {srr  J.  T.  Bent,  T/ie  Saired  City  of  the 
Et/itflfiaiis,  1893).  «^ 

*  Further  particulars  of  the  mission  are  given  in  the  Chronicle  of  John 
Malalas,  and  in  Gibbon,  ch.  xli. 

'  The  f(nni  of  the  word  is  doubtful. 


NONNOSUS  19 

Phoenicon  as  well  as  beyond  it  and  the  Taurenian  mountains/ 
have  a  sacred  meeting-place  consecrated  to  one  of  the  gods, 
where  they  assemble  twice  a  year.  One  of  these  meetings 
lasts  a  whole  month,  almost  to  the  middle  of  spring,  when  the 
sun  enters  Taurus ;  the  other  lasts  two  months,  and  is  held 
after  the  summer  solstice.  During  these  meetings  complete 
peace  prevails,  not  only  amongst  themselves,  but  also  with  all 
the  natives ;  even  the  animals  are  at  peace  both  with  them- 
selves and  with  human  beings.  Other  strange,  more  or  less 
fabulous  information  is  also  given. 

He  tells  us  that  Adulis  ^  is  fifteen  days'  journey  from  Axumis. 
On  his  way  there,  he  and  his  companions  saw  a  remarkable 
sight  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Aue  (Ave),  midway  between 
Axumis  and  Adulis ;  this  was  a  large  number  of  elephants, 
nearly  5000.  They  were  feeding  in  a  large  plain,  and  the 
inhabitants  found  it  difficult  to  approach  them  or  drive  them 
from  their  pasture.     This  was  what  they  saw  on  their  journey. 

We  must  also  say  something  about  the  climatic  contrarieties 
of  summer  and  winter  between  Ave  and  Axumis.  When  the 
sun  enters  Cancer,  Leo,  and  Virgo,  it  is  summer  as  far  as 
Ave,  as  with  us,  and  the  atmosphere  is  extremely  dry ;  but 
from  Ave  to  Axumis  and  the  rest  of  Aethiopia,  it  is  severe 
winter,  not  throughout  the  day,  but  beginning  from  midday, 
the  sky  being  covered  with  clouds  and  the  country  flooded 
with  violent  rains.  At  that  time  also  the  Nile,  spreading  over 
Egypt,  overflows  and  irrigates  the  land.  But  when  the  sun 
enters  Capricornus,  Aquarius,  and  Pisces,  the  atmosphere,  con- 
versely, floods  the  country  of  the  Adulites  as  far  as  Ave, 
while  it  is  summer  from  Ave  to  Axumis  and  the  rest  of 
Aethiopia,  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth  are  ripe. 

During  his  voyage  from  Pharsan,-"^  Nonnosus,  on  reaching 
the  last  of  the  islands,  had  a  remarkable  experience.  He 
there  saw  certain  creatures  *  of  human  shape  and  form,  very 
short,  black-skinned,  their  bodies  entirely  covered  with  hair. 
The  men  were  accompanied  by  women  of  the  same  appearance, 
and  by  boys  still  shorter.  All  were  naked,  women  as  well  as 
men,  except  for  a  short  apron  of  skin  round  their  loins.    There 

'   Mountainous  districts  in  Anterior  Asia  and  the  land  of  the  Saracens. 
^  A  seaport  town,   generally  identified  with  modem  Thulla  or  Zula  in 
Annesley  Bay  on  the  W.  shore  of  the  Red  Sea. 

^  Town  in  Aethiopia.  *  The  Pygmies. 


20  GREGORY  OF  NYSSA 

was  nothing  wild  or  savage  about  them.  Their  speech  was 
human,  but  their  language  was  unintelHgible  even  to  their 
neighbours,  and  still  more  so  to  Nonnosus  and  his  companions. 
They  live  on  shell-fish  and  fish  cast  up  on  the  shore.  Accord- 
ing to  Nonnosus,  they  were  very  timid,  and  when  they  saw 
him  and  his  companions,  they  shrank  from  them  as  we  do  from 
monstrous  wild  beasts. 

IV 

Read  the  twenty-five  books  of  Theodore  of  Antioch  ^  against 
Eunomius  -  in  defence  of  St.  Basil. ^  His  style  is  somewhat 
obscure,  but  the  work  is  full  of  ideas  and  sound  reasoning,  and 
contains  a  wealth  of  evidence  taken  from  the  Scriptures.  He 
refutes  the  arguments  of  Eunomius  almost  word  for  word,  and 
amply  proves  that  he  is  very  ignorant  of  outside  knowledge 
and  still  more  so  of  our  religion.  I  believe  he  is  the  Theodore 
who  was  bishop  of  Mopsuestia. 

V 

Read  also  the  attack  of  Sophronius  ^  on  Eunomius  in 
defence  of  St.  Basil.  His  style  is  clearer  and  more  concise 
than  that  of  Theodore.  He  does  not  traverse  all  the  arguments 
of  Eunomius,  but  chiefly  attacks  and  refutes  those  which 
appear  to  contain  the  most  essential  points  of  his  heresy.  The 
style  is  aphoristic,  the  language  in  general  free  and  simple  ^  and 
not  disagreeable,  although  embellished  with  over-laboured 
arguments. 

VI 

Read  also  the  attack  of  Gregory  of  Nyssa  ^  on  Eunomius  in 

^  Theodore  (<r.  350-428),  bishop  of  Mopsuestia  (394)  in  Cilicia,  born  at 
Antioch,  the  greatest  exegete  of  the  Antiochean  school.  He  also  wrote 
polemical,  dogmatic,  and  liturgical  treatises. 

'^  Eunomius  (d.  393)  of  Cappadocia,  bishop  of  Cyzicus,  deprived  of  his 
episcopate  for  Arianism. 

s  St.  Basil  the  Great  (330-379),  bishop  of  Caesareain  Cappadocia  (370). 
He  is  most  important  as  the  strenuous  upholder  of  orthodoxy  and  as  the 
introducer  of  definite  rules  and  forms  of  ecclesiastical  life',  which  have 
maintained  themselves  to  the  present  day. 

*  Probably  the  friend  of  St.  Jerome  and  translator  of  his  works. 

5  AcrvvSeros,  lit.,  "without  conjunctions." 

6  (332-396).  Bishop  of  Nyssa  in  Cappadocia  (372),  younger  brother  of 
Basil  the  Great,  called  Father  of  the  Fathers. 


ORIGEN  21 

defence  of  St.  Basil.  His  style  is  as  brilliant  as  that  of  any 
rhetorician,  and  agreeable  to  listen  to.  He  does  not  refute 
Eunomius  in  detail,  and  is  consequently  briefer  than  Theodore, 
but  fuller  than  Sophronius.  He  is  fond  of  using  enthy- 
memes  ^  and  arguments  from  example.  But  I  can  say  without 
partiality  that  the  copiousness  and  fertility  of  his  arguments 
are  as  convincing  a  proof  of  his  superiority  to  Theodore  as  the 
charm,  brilliancy,  and  pleasantness  of  his  style. 

vn 

Read  another  treatise  by  the  same  Gregory  of  Nyssa  on  the 
same  subject.  In  this  he  joins  issue  with  Eunomius  by  more 
reasoned  arguments  and  storms  the  tottering  ramparts  of  his 
impiety.  The  beauty  of  his  style,  its  mingled  brilliancy  and 
charm,  are  equally  conspicuous  in  this  work. 

vin 

Read  Origen's  ^  four  books  On  First  Principles.  The  first 
deals  with  the  Father,  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost.  In  this 
his  statements  are  often  blasphemous ;  thus,  he  asserts  that 
the  Son  was  created  by  the  Father,  the  Holy  Ghost  by  the 
Son  ;  that  the  Father  pervades  all  existing  things,  the  Son 
only  those  that  are  endowed  with  reason,  the  Holy  Ghost  only 
those  that  are  saved.  He  also  makes  other  strange  and 
impious  statements,  indulging  in  frivolous  talk  about  the 
migration  of  souls,  the  stars  being  alive,  and  the  like.  This 
first  book  is  full  of  fables  about  the  Father,  Christ  (as  he  calls 
the  Son),  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  creatures  endowed  with  reason. 
In  the  second  book  he  treats  of  the  world  and  created  things. 
He  asserts  that  the  God  of  the  Law  and  the  prophets,  of  the 
Old  and  the  New  Testament,  is  one  and  the  same ;  that  there 
was  the  same  Holy  Spirit  in  Moses,  the  rest  of  the  prophets,  and 

^  The  special  meaning  of  an  "  enthymeme  "  is  a  rhetorical  or  imperfect 
syllogism,  drawn  from  probable  premises.  But  here  and  elsewhere  in 
Photius  it  seems  to  mean  simply  "  arguments." 

^  Surnamed  Adamantius  (184-253),  born  at  Alexandria,  died  at  Tyre. 
This  treatise  supplied  the  chief  arguments  for  the  charge  of  here^^y  that 
was  brought  against  him.  He  was  also  called  Chalcenterus  ("  brazen- 
bowelled")  from  his  passion  for  work.  His  numerous  works  comprise 
Homilies,  and  the  famous  treatise  Against  Celsus.  Fragments  of  his 
Hexapla  (a  recension  of  the  Old  Testament)  have  been  preserved. 


22  EUSEBIUS 

the  Holy  Apostles.  He  further  discusses  the  Incarnation  of 
the  Saviour,  the  soul,  resurrection,  punishment,  and  promises. 
The  third  book  deals  with  free  will ;  how  the  devil  and  hostile 
powers,  according  to  the  Scriptures,  wage  war  against  mankind  ; 
that  the  world  was  created  and  is  perishable,  having  had  a 
beginning  in  time.  The  fourth  book  treats  of  the  final  end, 
the  divine  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  proper  manner 
of  reading  and  understanding  them. 

IX 

Read  fifteen  books  of  the  Praeparatio  Eva?igelica  of 
Eusebius,  in  which  he  refutes  the  foolish  doctrines  of  the 
gentiles,  and  shows  that  they  were  always  contradictory.  At 
the  beginning  and  end  of  the  fifteenth  book  he  mentions 
another  treatise,  the  Demonstratio  Evafigelica^  which  follows 
the  Praeparatio.  His  object  in  these  works  is  to  refute  the 
errors  of  the  gentiles,  and  to  confirm  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel. 

X 

Read    the    twenty  ^    books     of     Eusebius's    Demonstratio 


Evangelica. 


XI 


Read  Eusebius's  Praeparatio  Ecclesiastica,'^  in  .  .  .  books 
in  which  there  are  extracts.  .  .  . 

XII 

Read  Eusebius's  Demonstratio  Etclesiastica^^  in  .  .  .  books. 

XIII 

Read  two  books  of  Eusebius's  Kef2itatio7i  and  Defence,  and 
a  second  edition  of  the  same,  which,  while  differing  in  certain 
passages,  agrees  in  other  respects  in  both  style  and  sentiments 
with  the  first.  He  mentions  certain  difficulties  brought  forward 
by  the  heathen  against  our  blameless  religion,  and  solves  them 
satisfactorily,  though  not  entirely.  His  style  is  neither  agree- 
able nor  brilliant ;  however,  he  is  a  man  of  great  learning, 
although  wanting  in  the  shrewdness  and  firmness  of  character 

^  Only  ten  are  extant.  ^  Both  these  works  are  lost. 


APOLINARIUS  23 

so  necessary  for  the  accurate  discussion  of  questions  of  dogma. 
In  many  passages  he  utters  blasphemies  against  the  Son,  caUing 
him  second  cause,  commander-in-chief,  and  other  excrescences 
of  Arian  madness.  It  is  evident  that  he  flourished  during  the 
reign  of  Constantine  the  Great.  He  was  an  ardent  admirer  of 
the  virtuous  saint  and  martyr  Pamphilus,  from  whom  he  took 
his  surname. 

XIV 

Read  ApoHnarius's  ^  Against  the  Heathen^  On  Piety ^  and  On 
Truth.  The  writer  was  bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Asia  *  and 
flourished  during  the  reign  of  Marcus  Antoninus  Verus.^  He 
deserves  mention  and  his  style  is  excellent.  Other  writings  of 
his  are  said  to  be  equally  worthy  of  record,  but  they  have  not 
come  into  my  hands. 

XV 

Read  the  Acts  of  the  first  council*  in  three  volumes.  It 
bears  the  name  of  Gelasius,^  but  is  rather  a  history  than  an 
Acts.  The  author's  style  is  poor  and  mean,  but  he  gives  a 
detailed  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  council. 

XVI 

Read  the  Acts  of  the  third  council,^  consisting  almost 
entirely  of  the  letters  of  St.  Cyril '  to  Nestorius  ^  and  that 
impious  man's  replies. 

XVII 
Read  the  Acts  of  the   fourth   council  ^   in   several   books. 

^  Also  spelt  Apolinaris,  Apollinaris,  or  Apollinarius,  flourished  about 
175.     His  gentile  name  was  Claudius. 

^  In  Lesser  Phrygia. 

^  The  well-known  author  of  the  Meditations.,  commonly  known  as 
Marcus  Aurelius. 

*  Of  Nicaea  (325). 

^  Of  Cyzicus,  flourished  about  475.  Nothing  more  is  known  of  him  than 
what  he  states  in  the  work  itself,  which  is  still  extant. 

^  Of  Ephesus  (431). 

'  Archbishop  of  Alexandria  (412-444). 

^  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (428-431),  deprived  of  his  ofifice  by  the 
council  of  Ephesus  on  account  of  his  heresy. 

»  Of  Chalcedon(45i). 


24  SYNODS 

There  were  fifteen  sessions,  at  which  Dioscorus  ^  and  Eutyches  ^ 
were  condemned,  and  Nestorius  excommunicated.  St.  Flavian  ^ 
was  declared  innocent  after  his  death,  together  with  Eusebius 
of  Dorylaeum,*  Theodoret  ^  and  Ibas.^  Other  special  matters 
were  discussed,  and  the  spirit  of  piety  was  strengthened. 

XVIII 

Read  the  Acfs  of  the  fifth  council,''  at  which  the  three  so- 
called  "  chapters "  ^  were  dealt  with,  and  Origen  and  his 
writings  excommunicated,  together  with  Diodorus  of  Tarsus,^ 
and  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia.  Theodoret's  answer  to  the 
twelve  anathematisms  of  Cyril  was  also  excommunicated. 
Previous  to  this,  the  cases  of  Zooras  ^°  and  Anthimus,^^  who 
wormed  his  way  into  the  patriarchate  of  Constantinople,  and 
certain  other  matters  were  discussed. 

XIX 

Read  the  Acfs  of  the  sixth  council, ^^  ^i-  ^-j^g  sessions  of  which 
Sergius,^^  Cyrus,^*  and  Pyrrhus  ^^  of  Constantinople  were  ex- 
communicated, together  with  Honorius  ^^  of  Rome,  Poly- 
chronius,^''  and  others,  who  had  ventured  to  assert  that  there 

^  Bishop  of  Alexandria  (444-451). 

2  Founder  of  the  sect  of  the  I\i  onophysites  (380-456). 

^  Bishop  of  Constantinople  (447-449). 

*  Bishop  of  Dorylaeum  (mod.  £s^'i  S/ie/ir)  in  Phrygia  (400-451). 

^  Bishop  of  Cyrrhus  (Cyrus)  near  the  Euphrates,  two  days'  journey  from 
Antioch,  theologian  and  ecclesiastical  historian  {c.  393-458). 

*  Bishop  of  Edessa  {c.  435-457). 
'  Of  Constantinople  (553). 

^  The  writings  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  ;  of  Theodoret  in  defence  of 
Nestorius  ;  the  letter  of  II  as  to  the  Persian  Mai  is. 

®  Founder  of  the   exegetical    school   of    Antioch,    bishop    of  Tarsus 

(378-394)- 

^^  A  Monophysite  Syrian  monk. 

^^  Anthimus,  patriarch  of  Constantinople  (535,  deposed  536),  translated 
from  the  episcopate  of  Trapezus  through  the  influence  of  the  empress 
Theodora. 

^2  Of  Constantinople  (680). 

^^  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (610-638). 

^•*  Bishop  of  Phasis,  afterwards  patriarch  of  Alexandria  (630-641). 

^^  Friend  and  successor  of  Sergius  as  patriarch  of  Constantinople 
(638-641). 

16  Pope  (625-638). 

1^  Monothelite  presbyter  and  monk. 


JOHN  PHILOPONUS  25 

was  only  one  will  and  one  energy  in  Christ.     The  dogma  of 
truth  was  confirmed. 

XX 

Read  the  Acts  of  the  seventh  council,^  at  the  sessions  of 
which  the  iconoclasts  were  defeated  and  the  orthodox  faith 
shone  with  increased  brightness. 

XXI 

Read  the  treatise  of  John  Philoponus  ^  On  the  Resurrection 
in  .  .  .  volumes.  In  this  work,  rejecting  the  doctrine  of  the 
Resurrection  of  the  body,  he  says  much  that  is  ill-considered. 
He  also  ridicules  our  blessed  and  holy  Fathers. 

XXII 

Read  the  elaborate  Refutation  by  Theodosius  the  Monk^ 
of  the  passages  cited  by  John  Philoponus  as  arguments  against 
the  Resurrection,  including  quotations  from  Holy  Scripture 
and  the  Fathers,  in  refutation  of  John's  vain  efforts. 

XXIII 

Read  the  invectives  of  Conon,"*  Eugenius,^  and  Themistius,® 
against  the  treatise  of  John  Philoponus,  in  which  they  pillory 
his  vain  efforts.  They  also  violently  attack  him  personally,  as 
a  man  entirely  estranged  from  the  Christian  faith.  However, 
they  agree  with  him  in  refusing  to  accept  the  decisions  of  the 
council  of  Chalcedon. 

^  The  second  council  of  Nicaea  (787). 

^  Of  Alexandria,  theologian,  grammarian,  and  philosopher,  flourished 
in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century.  His  chief  work  (of  which  considerable 
fragments  remain),  called  The  Arbitrator,  was  an  attempt  to  reconcile 
Monophysitism  and  Tritheism.  Photius  (Cod.  LV,  LXXV)  mentions  two 
other  theological  treatises.  On  the  Resurrection  is  lost.  Some  fragments  of 
notes  on  Aristotle  are  preserved.  He  was  called  Philoponus  from  his 
great  industry  ;  his  opponents  changed  this  into  Mataioponus  (vainly 
industrious). 

'  A  fifth-century   monk,  of  whom  nothing  is  known. 

*  Bishop  of  Tarsus  {c.  600). 

^  A  Cilician  bishop  in  the  second  half  of  the  sixth  century. 

^  Deacon  of  Alexandria  (sixth  century),  leader  of  the  Agnoetae  (a  Mono- 
physitic  sect),  who  held  that  the  human  soul  of  Christ  resembled  that  of 
man  in  all  things,  even  in  his  "  ignorance  "  or  limited  knowledge. 


26  SYNESIUS 


XXIV 


Read  a  volume  containing  the  Acts  of  a  disputation  held 
before  John,^  bishop  of  the  queen  city,  during  the  reign  of 
Justin,^  in  which  Conon  and  Eugenius  the  Tritheites  took  part 
on  the  one  side,  and  Paul  ^  and  Stephen,*  the  Hesitators,^ 
on  the  other.  Conon  and  Eugenius  appear  to  have  sided  with 
Philoponus ;  for  when  Paul  and  Stephen  demanded  that  they 
should  anathematize  Philoponus,  they  were  unwilling  to  do  so. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  brought  forth  arguments  to  prove  that 
his  views  were  in  harmony  with  those  of  Severus  ^  and  Theo- 
dosius,  their  own  teachers.  They  indeed  in  many  respects  up- 
hold the  orthodox  views — that  the  Trinity  is  consubstantial  and 
of  the  same  nature,  that  God  is  one,  that  the  Godhead  is  one ; 
but  they  are  guilty  of  blasphemy  in  asserting  that  the  Father 
and  the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  are  partial  substances,  and 
have  special  divinities  and  natures,  thus  being  at  variance  with 
themselves  and  the  truth.  Many  other  opinions  of  theirs  are 
equally  foolish  and  nonsensical. 

XXV 

Read  the  work  by  John  Chrysostom  '^  entitled  Notes  on  Death, 
twenty-two  short  homilies.  In  the  same  volume  there  are  also 
twenty-two  homilies  on  the  Ascension  of  the  Lord  dc^di  seventeen 
on  Pentecost. 

XXVI 

Read  the  orations  of  Synesius,^  bishop  of  Gyrene,  O71 
Providence,^  On  the  Kingdo?n,  and  some  other  subjects.     His 

^  John  III  Scholasticus  (the  lawyer),  bishop  of  Constantinople 
(565-577).    He  was  the  author  of  a  Nomocanon,  a  digest  of  canonical  law. 

^  Justin  II  (emperor  565-578). 

'  Paul  the  Black,  "Jacobite"  patriarch  of  Antioch  {c.  550-578). 

*  "Jacobite  "  bishop  of  Cyprus. 

^  They  partly  accepted,  and  partly  rejected,  the  decisions  of  the  council 
of  Chalcedon. 

^  Monophysite  patriarch  of  Antioch  (512-519). 

'  John  the  Golden-mouthed  (347-407),  bishop  of  Constantinople. 

s  Neo-Platonist  and  bishop  of  Ptolemais  in  Cyrenaica  (378-431)-  The 
speech  On  the  Kingdom  was  delivered  at  Constantinople  before  the 
emperor  Arcadius. 

^  Also  called  Egyptian  Discourses,  a  sort  of  historical  romance,  in  which 
there  are  allusions  to  the  history  of  the  time,  disguised  as  the  mythical 
stories  of  Osiris  and  Typhon. 


SOCRATES  27 

style  is  lofty  and  dignified,^  but  somewhat  inclined  to  be  over- 
poetical. 

Also  read  various  letters  of  his,  distilling  grace  and  charm, 
at  the  same  time  vigorous  and  full  of  closely-packed  -  ideas. 

He  originally  belonged  to  a  heathen  school  of  philosophy, 
but  was  favourably  disposed  to  the  inspired  truths  of  Christi- 
anity and  ready  to  accept  all  its  doctrines  except  that  of  the 
Resurrection.  Although  this  was  his  attitude,  he  was  admitted 
into  our  Church  and  even  raised  to  the  episcopate,  by  reason 
of  his  goodness  and  purity  and  in  the  conviction  that  a  man 
of  such  holiness  of  life  could  not  fail  to  be  illuminated  by  the 
light  of  the  Resurrection.  Nor  were  these  hopes  disappointed. 
For  as  soon  as  he  became  bishop  he  readily  assented  to  that 
doctrine.  Synesius  was  an  ornament  to  Cyrene  at  the  time 
when  Theophilus  was  patriarch  of  Alexandria.^ 

XXVIl 

Read  the  ten  books  of  Eusebius's  Ecclesiastical  History. 
Beginning  from  the  birth  of  Christ,  our  true  God,  it  carefully 
describes  the  period  of  the  tyrants,  and  ends  with  the  reign  of 
Constantine  the  Great.  A  more  detailed  account  is  given  of 
the  Church  institutions  established  by  him  during  his  reign. 

XXVIII 

Read  Socrates's*  Ecclesiastical  History^  a  continuation  of 
that  of  Eusebius.  Beginning  with  the  reign  of  Constantine,  it 
goes  down  to  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Younger.^ 

The  writer,  who  had  attended  the  lectures  of  Ammonius 
and  Helladius  the  Alexandrine  grammarians,^  even  when  a  boy 
had  been  instructed  in  "grammar  "  by  heathen  tutors,  who  had 
been  banished  from  their  native  country  for  sedition  and 
carried  on  their  profession  at  Constantinople.  The  work  con- 
tains the  events  of  140  years,  and  the  entire  history  is  included 

^  Perhaps  "massive"  might  express  the  idea  of  07ACOS. 

•  Or  "shrewd."  »  385-412. 

*  Socrates  of  Constantinople  {c.  380-439),  originally  a  lawyer. 
^  Emperor  408-450. 

®  The  Greek  7pa^^aTiK(^s  is  equivalent  to  "  a  literary  man  "  generally, 
with  special  reference  to  the  study  of  poetry.  The  same  idea  appears  in 
ypafi/iaTiKij  (grammar).  Ammonius  and  Helladius  had  fled  for  refuge  to 
Constantinople,  where  they  taught  Socrates. 


28  THEODORET 

in  seven  books.     There  is  nothing  remarkable  in  the  author's 
style,  and  he  is  not  very  accurate  in  matters  of  doctrine. 

XXIX 

Read  the  Ecclesiastical  Histoi-y  of  Evagrius  ^  Scholasticus, 
an  ex-praefect,  born  at  Epiphania  in  Coele-Syria,  in  six  books. 
The  work  begins  where  those  of  Socrates  and  Theodoret  end, 
and  goes  down  to  the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Maurice.^  The  style  is  not  without  charm,  although  somewhat 
diffuse  ;  in  matters  of  doctrine  he  is  certainly  more  trustworthy 
than  other  historians.  The  work  also  contains  some  passages 
about  images. 

XXX 

* 

Read  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Salamanus  Hermeias 
Sozomen,^  in  nine  books.  Dedicated  to  the  emperor  Theo- 
dosius  the  Younger,  it  begins  with  the  consulship  of  Crispus 
and  his  father  Constantine,  and  goes  down  to  the  reign  of 
Theodosius  the  Younger.*  Sozomen  was  at  one  time  an 
advocate  in  Constantinople.  His  style  is  better  than  that  of 
Socrates,  from  whom  he  differs  in  certain  particulars. 

XXXI 

Read  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Theodoret.^  Of  all  the 
writers  mentioned  his  style  is  best  suited  for  history.  It  is 
generally  clear,  dignified,  and  free  from  redundancies,  although 
he  sometimes  employs  metaphors  that  are  too  bold,  almost 
insipid.  He  gives  a  fuller  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
second  council  ^  than  other  historians,  who  merely  bestow  a 
cursory  notice  upon  them,  as  if  they  were  unwilling  to  say 
much  about  it.  However,  even  he  does  not  give  all  the 
details.  He  begins  his  History  with  the  heresy  of  Arius  and 
goes  down  to  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Younger,  and  the 

^  About  536-600.     He  was  an  advocate  (Scholasticus). 

^  That  is,  it  covers  the  period  from  431  to  593. 

^  He  was  born  near  Gaza  in  Palestine,  and  afterwards  settled  in 
Constantinople  {c.  400-450). 

*  It  originally  covered  the  period  from  324  to  439,  but  the  history  of 
425-439  is  wanting. 

^  See  Cod.  XVH. 

^  The  first  council  of  Constantinople  (381). 


JUSTUS   OF  TIBERIAS  29 

death  of  Theodore/  at  the  time  .when  Sisinnius  was  bishop  of 
Constantinople. 

XXXII 

Read  various  letters  of  Athanasius,^  some  containing  a  kind 
of  Apology  for  his  flight.^  The  style  is  elegant,  brilliant,  and 
clear,  full  of  grace  and  persuasiveness.  It  is  a  pleasure  to 
listen  to  the  Apology. 

XXXIII 

Read  the  Chronicle  of  Justus  of  Tiberias,*  entitled  A 
Chronicle  of  the  Kings  of  the  Jews  in  the  form  of  a  genealogy ,  by 
Justus  of  Tiberias.^  He  came  from  Tiberias  in  Galilee,  from 
which  he  took  his  name.  He  begins  his  history  with  Moses 
and  carries  it  down  to  the  death  of  the  seventh  Agrippa  of  the 
family  of  Herod  ^  and  the  last  of  the  kings  of  the  Jews.  His 
kingdom,  which  was  bestowed  upon  him  by  Claudius,  was 
extended  by  Nero,  and  still  more  by  Vespasian.  He  died  in 
the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Trajan,  when  the  history  ends. 
Justus's  style  is  very  concise,  and  he  omits  a  great  deal  that  is 
of  the  utmost  importance.  Suffering  from  the  common  fault 
of  the  Jews,  to  which  race  he  belonged,  he  does  not  even 
mention  the  coming  of  Christ,  the  events  of  His  life,  or  the 
miracles  performed  by  Him.  His  father  was  a  Jew  named 
Pistus ;  Justus  himself,  according  to  Josephus,  was  one  of  the 
most  abandoned  of  men,  a  slave  to  vice  and  greed.  He  was 
a  political  opponent  of  Josephus,  against  whom  he  is  said 
to  have  concocted  several  plots  ;  but  Josephus,  although  on 

^  Of  Mopsuestia  {see  Cod.  IV.). 

^  (296-373).  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  the  father  of  orthodoxy  and  the 
chief  opponent  of  Arianism. 

3  He  was  accused  of  cowardice  by  the  Arians  for  taking  refuge  in  the 
desert. 

*  Contemporary  of  Josephus,  by  whom  his  character  and  works  are 
violently  attacked.  He  was  condemned  to  death  by  Vespasian,  but  his 
life  was  spared  by  Agrippa.     He  also  wrote  a  history  of  the  Jewish  war. 

^  The  Grerk  phrase  is  ^aaiXexv  rwv  iv  tols  arefx/xaai,  usually  translated 
"crowned  kings,"  but  (rrefxixa  more  probably  here  means  a  genealogical 
tree. 

^  Agrippa  H,  before  whom  St.  Paul  made  his  defence.  The  statement 
that  he  died  in  the  third  year  of  Trajan's  reign  (100)  is  objected  to  on  the 
ground  \.\\2.\.]ostY>\\ViS  Atitobiography,  which  gives  an  account  of  Justus,  was 
published  immediately  after  the  Antiquities  (in  the  reign  of  Domitian). 


30  JULIUS  AFRICANUS 

several  occasions  he  had  his  enemy  in  his  power,  only  chastised 
him  with  words  and  let  him  go  free.  It  is  said  that  the 
history  which  he  wrote  is  in  great  part  fictitious,  especially 
where  he  describes  the  Judaeo-Roman  war  and  the  capture  of 
Jerusalem. 

XXXIV 

Read  the  History  of  Africanus,^  who  was  also  the  author  of 
the  Cesti  in  fourteen  books.^  Although  his  style  is  concise, 
he  omits  nothing  worthy  of  record.  He  begins  with  the 
Mosaic  cosmogony  and  goes  down  to  the  coming  of  Christ. 
He  also  gives  a  cursory  account  of  events  from  that  time  to 
the  reign  of  Macrinus,^  at  which  date,  as  he  tells  us,  the 
Chronicle  was  finished,  that  is,  in  the  5723rd  year  of  the  world. 
The  work  is  in  five  volumes. 

Africanus  also  wrote  a  letter  to  Origen  against  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  history  of  Susannah,  on  the  grounds  (amongst 
others)  that  it  is  not  included  in  the  Jewish  books,  and  that 
the  play  on  words  (cxTro  tov  Tvpivov  Trpiaai  .  .  .  OLTTO  Tov  (T)(ivov 
o-xiVat)*  is  at  variance  with  the  genuine  Hebrew  style.  Origen 
answered  and  refuted  these  objections. 

Africanus  also  wTote  a  letter  to  Aristides,^  in  which  he 
showed  that  in  reality  there  was  no  such  difference  as  was 
generally  supposed  between  the  genealogies  of  our  Saviour  in 
Matthew  and  Luke. 

^  Julius  Africanus  (c.  170-240),  Christian  historical  writer,  was  born  at 
Jerusalem  (not  in  Africa)  and  subsequently  lived  at  Emmaus-Nicopolis  in 
Palestine.  He  was  the  author  of  a  C/irofiir/e,  a  history  of  the  world  from 
the  Creation  to  221  ;  Cesi/  (embroidered  girdles),  a  collection  of  notes  on  all 
kinds  of  subjects  ;  a  letter  to  Aristides  on  the  genealogies  of  Jesus  in 
Matthew  and  Luke  ;  and  a  letter  to  Origen  to  show  that  the  Histojy  of 
Susaujiah  in  the  Apocrypha  is  a  later  addition  from  a  Greek  original.  The 
last  has  been  preserved  in  full,  of  the  three  first  only  fragments.  According 
to  his  system  of  chronology,  called  the  Alexandrian  era,  there  were  5499 
years  between  the  Creation  and  the  birth  of  Christ,  which  he  antedated  by 
three  years. 

'•^  The  correct  number  is  twenty-four. 

^  Emperor  217-218.  An  extract  in  Georgius  Syncellus,  however,  shows 
that  the  Chronicle  really  went  down  a  little  later. 

*  "Where  didst  thou  see  them?"  "Under  a  mastic  tree  {crxi.vos).'" 
"The  angel  of  God  shall  cleave  {(xxifr^i)  thy  soul  to-day."  "  Under  a 
holm-tree  {nplvos).''     "  The  angel  of  God  shall  saw  thee  in  two  {wpicrei)." 

^  Nothing  is  known  of  him. 


PHILIP  OF  SIDE  31 

XXXV  s 

Read  the  work  of  Philip  ^  of  Side,  entitled  a  Christian 
History^  beginning  with  the  words  "  In  the  beginning  God 
created  the  heavens  and  the  earth."  He  gives  an  account  of 
the  Mosaic  history,  sometimes  brief,  sometimes  full,  although 
wordy  throughout.  The  first  book  contains  twenty-four 
volumes,  like  the  twenty-three  other  books,  which  we  have 
seen  up  to  the  present.^  His  language  is  diffuse,  without 
urbanity  or  elegance,  and  soon  palls,  or  positively  disgusts  ; 
his  aim  is  rather  to  display  his  knowledge  than  to  benefit  the 
reader.  Most  of  the  matter  has  nothing  to  do  with  history,  and 
the  work  might  be  called  a  treatise  on  all  kinds  of  subjects  rather 
than  a  history,  a  tasteless  effusion.  Philip  was  a  contemporary 
of  Sisinnius  and  Proclus,  patriarchs  of  Constantinople.  He 
frequently  attacks  the  former  in  his  history,  because,  while 
both  filled  the  same  office^  and  Philip  was  considered  the 
more  eloquent,  Sisinnius  was  elected  to  the  patriarchate. 

XXXVI 

Read  the  book  entitled  the  Book  of  Christians,  an  interpre- 
tation of  the  Octateuch.  The  author,*  who  flourished  in  the 
reign  of  Justin,  dedicates  the  work  to  a  certain  Pamphilus.  It 
begins  with  the  defence  of  certain  ecclesiastical  dogmas  by 
evidence  drawn  from  the  Scriptures.     The  style  is  poor,  and 

^  Philip  of  Side  in  Pamphylia  (fifth  century).     He  was  a  presbyter  in 
Constantinople,  and  a  friend  of  John  Chrysostom. 

*  It    originally   contained    thirty-six   books   and    nearly    one   thousand 
volumes. 

^  They  were  both  presbyters. 

*  Cosmas  Indicopleustes  ("the  Indian  navigator"),  an  Alexandrian 
merchant,  who  flourished  in  the  sixth  century.  He  visited  Arabia  and 
East  Africa,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  he  deserves  the  title  of  "Indian 
navigator."  The  title  by  which  tlie  work  is  usually  known  is  Christian 
Topography ;  as  its  object  was  to  introduce  a  new  system  of  physical 
geography  in  harmony  with  the  teaching  of  Christianity,  a  physico-astro- 
nomical  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  Photius  gives  it  the  subtitle  of 
Interpretation  oj  the  Octateuch.  Fabricins  {Bib.  Gr.,  iv.  230)  takes  it  to 
mean  simply  "a  treatise  in  eight  books,"  regarding  the  four  other  books 
as  a  later  addition,  or  it  may  refer  to  the  "eight  books"  of  Ptolemy's 
geographical  work.  Photius  says  he  flourished  under  "Justin,"  but  as 
he  does  not  state  which  Justin,  perhaps  "Justinian"  (527-565)  should 
be  read.  He  certainly  may  have  been  born  under  Justin  I  (518-527) 
and  died  under  Justin  11  (565-578). 


32  COSMAS  INDICOPLEUSTES 

the  arrangement  hardly  up  to  the  ordinary  standard.  He 
relates  much  that  is  incredible  from  an  historical  point  of  view, 
so  that  he  may  fairly  be  regarded  as  a  fabulist  rather  than  a 
trustworthy  authority.  The  views  on  which  he  lays  special 
stress  are  :  that  neither  the  sky  nor  the  earth  is  spherical,  but  that 
the  former  is  a  kind  of  vault,  and  the  latter  a  rectangular  plane, 
[twice  as  long  as  broad],  to  the  ends  of  which  the  ends  of 
the  sky  are  united ;  that  all  the  stars,  with  the  help  of  the 
angels,  are  kept  in  motion  ;  and  other  things  of  the  same  kind. 
He  also  mentions  the  books  of  Genesis  and  Exodus^  as  it  were 
by  way  of  digression ;  and  enters  into  a  lengthy  discussion 
and  speculations  about  the  Tabernacle.  The  prophets  and 
apostles  are  cursorily  treated.  He  says  that  the  sun  is  only 
twice  as  large  as  two  "  climates  "  ;  ^  that  the  angels  do  not 
dwell  in  heaven,  but  above  the  firmament  and  mingle  with  us ; 
that  Christ  at  His  Ascension  entered  the  space  between  the  sky 
and  the  firmament,  and  that  only  this  is  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  ;  and  similar  absurdities.  He  dedicates  the  first  six 
books  to  a  certain  Pamphilus,  of  the  remaining  six  (there  are 
twelve  in  all)  the  seventh  to  Anastasius,  in  which  he  contends 
that  the  heavens  are  indissoluble ;  the  eighth,  on  the  song  of 
Hezekiah  ^  and  the  retrogression  of  the  sun,  to  a  certain  Peter. 
In  this  book  he  also  states  that  he  has  written  a  commentary 
on  the  Song  of  So?igs.  The  four  remaining  books  have  no 
dedication. 

xxxvn 

Read  an  essay  On  Governmettt^  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue 
between  Menas  a  patrician  and  Thomas  a  referendary.*  The 
treatise  is  in  six  books,  in  which  is  discussed  a  form  of  govern- 
ment,   called    SiKaiap-^LKov    (just    rule),    differing    from    those 

^  Before  the  earth  was  regarded  as  spherical,  its  surface  was  supposed 
to  "slope"  {kXlpco)  from  S.  to  N.,  and  this  slope  was  called  KXifxa.  Later, 
the  word  was  used  for  belts  or  zones  of  its  surface,  and  then  for  the 
temperature  of  those  zones.  According  to  Cosmas,  the  two  "climates" 
were  between  the  latitudes  of  Alexandria  and  Rhodes,  and  Rhodes  and 
Constantinople  (about  635  miles). 

^  Isaiah  xxxviii. 

^  There  seems  no  reason  to  identify  this  with  the  treatise  of  Ilepl 
■no\iriKT)s  Karaardaeoos  of  Peter  Patricius  (sixth  century),  Byzantine 
historian.      There  is  no  clue  to  the  author. 

*  Master  of  requests,  a  sort  of  lord-in-waiting  ;  also  a  Church  dignitary, 
an  intermediary  between  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authorities. 


THEODORE  OF  ANTIOCH  33 

propounded  by  ancient  writers.  The  Republic  of  Plato  is 
deservedly  criticised.  The  interlocutors  hold  that  the 
constitution  which  they  propose  should  be  a  combination  of 
the  three  forms  of  government — monarchy,  aristocracy, 
democracy.  Each  of  these  is  to  contribute  what  is  genuine 
and  sincere  to  the  formation  of  the  ideal  constitution. 

XXXVIII 

Read  the  work  of  Theodore  of  Antioch  ^  entitled  A 
Commentary  on  Genesis  (the  history  of  the  Creation),  the  first 
book  of  which  contains  seven  volumes.  The  style  is  neither 
brilliant  nor  very  clear.  The  author  avoids  the  use  of  allegory  as 
much  as  possible,  being  only  concerned  with  the  interpretation 
of  history.  He  frequently  repeats  himself,  and  produces  a 
disagreeable  impression  upon  the  reader.  Although  he  lived 
before  Nestorius,  he  vomits  up  his  doctrines  by  anticipation. 
This  is  that  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  from  whom  on  several 
occasions  John  Philoponus  (as  the  latter  himself  says) 
demanded  a  serious  explanation  of  his  method  of  interpretation 
in  his  own  work  on  the  Creation. 

XXXIX 

Read  the  brief  refutation  of  the  discourse  of  Hierocles  ^  in 
support  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  ^  by  Eusebius  Pamphili. 

XL 

Read  the  so-called  Ecclesiastical  History  by  Philostorgius  * 
the  Arian,  the  spirit  of  which  is  different  from  that  of  nearly 
all  other  ecclesiastical  historians.  He  extols  all  Arians,  but 
abuses  and  insults  all  the  orthodox,  so  that  his  work  is  not  so 

1  See  Cod.   IV.  ' 

*  Hierocles  of  Caria,  Roman  proconsul,  a  violent  anti-Christian,  lived 
in  the  time  of  Diocletian  (emperor  284-305).  The  work  referred  to  is 
Truth-loving  Words  to  the  Christians,  in  which  Apollonius  of  Tyana  is 
placed  above  Christ. 

3  Of  Tyana  in  Cappadocia  {c.  4  B.C. — A.D.  97),  magician  and  wonder- 
worker. 

*  Of  Borissus  in  Cappadocia,  born  c.  368,  died  after  425.  The  history 
covered  the  period  from  300  to  425.  He  supported  the  extreme  Arianism 
of  Eunomius.  A  considerable  number  of  extracts  (also  from  Photius)  have 
been  published  as  a  separate  work. 

VOL.  I.  C 


34  PHILOSTORGIUS 

much  a  history  as  a  panegyric  of  the  heretics,  and  nothing 
but  a  barefaced  attack  upon  the  orthodox.  His  style  is 
elegant,  his  diction  often  poetical,  though  not  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  be  tedious  or  disagreeable.  His  figurative  use  of  words 
is  very  expressive  and  makes  the  work  both  pleasant  and 
agreeable  to  read ;  sometimes,  however,  these  figures  are 
overbold  and  far-fetched,  and  create  an  impression  of  being 
frigid  and  ill-timed.  The  language  is  variously  embellished 
even  to  excess,  so  that  the  reader  imperceptibly  finds  himself 
involved  in  a  disagreeable  obscurity.  In  many  instances  the 
author  introduces  appropriate  moral  reflections  of  his  own. 
He  starts  from  the  devotion  of  Arius  to  the  heresy  and  its  first 
beginnings,  and  ends  with  the  recall  of  the  impious  Aetius.^ 
This  Aetius  was  removed  from  his  office  by  his  brother  heretics, 
since  he  outdid  them  in  wickedness,  as  Philostorgius  himself 
unwillingly  confesses.  He  was  recalled  and  welcomed  by  the 
impious  Julian.  The  history,  in  one  book  and  six  volumes, 
goes  down  to  this  period.  The  author  is  a  liar  and  the 
narrative  often  fictitious.  He  chiefly  extols  Aetius  and 
Eunomius  for  their  learning,  as  having  alone  cleansed  the 
doctrines  of  faith  overlaid  by  time,  therein  showing  himself 
a  monstrous  liar.  He  also  praises  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  ^ 
(whom  he  calls  the  Great),  Theophilus  the  Indian,^  and  several 
others,  for  their  lives  and  wonderful  works.  He  severely 
attacks  Acacius,  bishop  of  Caesarea*  in  Palestine,  for  his 
extreme  severity  and  invincible  craftiness,  in  which,  he  declares, 
Acacius  surpassed  all  his  fellow-heretics,  however  filled  they 
were  with  hatred  of  one  another,  as  well  as  those  who  held 
different  religious  opinions. 

This  was  the  extent  of  our  reading.  Soon  afterwards  six 
other  books  were  found  in  another  volume,  so  that  the  whole 
appears  to  have  filled  twelve  books.     The  initial  letters  of  each 

^  Aetius  of  Antioch,  founder  of  an  extreme  Arian  sect,  died  at  Con- 
stantinople (367).  He  was  exiled  by  Constantius,  but  recalled  by  Julian 
the  Apostate. 

^  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (d.  342),  supporter  of  Arianism  and  a 
bitter  opponent  of  Athanasius. 

^  Bishop  of  the  Church  of  Aethiopia  (358).  He  was  born  in  the  island 
of  Diu  (India),  but  in  early  youth  was  taken  as  a  hostage  to  Constantinople, 
where  he  became  a  Christian  (Arian). 

*  Surnamed  the  One-Eyed,  succeeded  Eusebius  (whose  pupil  and 
biographer  he  was)  as  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  340  and  died  in  365. 


BASIL  OF  CILICIA  35 

book  are  so  arranged  that  they  form  the  name  of  the  author. 
The  work  goes  down  to  the  time  of  Theodosius  the  Younger, 
when,  after  the  death  of  Honorius,  Theodosius  handed  over 
the  throne  of  the  West  to  his  cousin  Valentinian  the  Younger, 
the  son  of  Constantius  and  Placidia. 

Notwithstanding  his  rage  against  the  orthodox,  Philostorgius 
does  not  venture  to  attack  Gregory  the  Theologian,^  but 
unwillingly  accepts  his  doctrines.  His  attempt  to  slander 
Basil  the  Great  only  had  the  effect  of  increasing  his  reputation. 
He  was  forced  to  admit  the  vigour  and  beauty  of  his  sermons 
from  actual  knowledge,  although  he  timidly  calls  Basil 
overbold  and  inexperienced  in  controversy,  because  he  ventured 
to  attack  the  writings  of  Eunomius. 

XLI 

Read  the  Ecclesiastical  History  by  a  certain  John.^  It  begins 
with  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  Younger,  the  heresy  of 
Nestorius  and  his  deposition,  and  goes  down  to  the  time  of 
Zeno  and  the  deposition  of  Peter  the  heretic,^  who  had  usurped 
the  see  of  Antioch.  The  style  is  clear  but  florid.  The  author 
describes  in  detail  the  third  council  held  at  Ephesus,*  and  also 
another  council  held  in  the  same  place,  the  *'  Robber " 
council,*  which  he  deifies  together  with  its  president  Dioscorus 
and  his  companions.  He  also  gives  a  slanderous  account  of 
the  council  of  Chalcedon.  This  justifies  the  conclusion  that 
the  author  is  John,  presbyter  of  Aegae,  a  heretic  who  wrote  a 
special  attack  on  the  council  of  Chalcedon.  The  history, 
according  to  his  statement,  is  in  ten  books.  I  have  only  read 
five,  containing  (as  already  stated)  a  record  of  events  from  the 
heresy  of  Nestorius  to  the  deposition  of  Peter  the  heretic. 

XLII 

Read   the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Basil  the  Cilician.®     It 

^  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  (329-389),  bishop  of  Constantinople. 

"^  Presbyter  of  Aegae  in  Cilicia,  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fifth 
century.  In  Cod.  LV.  Photius  calls  him  a  Nestorian,  but  it  is  suggested 
that  this  is  a  mistake  for  Eutychian. 

^  Surnamed  the  Fuller,  patriarch  of  Antioch  (471-488). 

''431.  /  449- 

'  {c.    500).     Presbyter  of  Antioch,  afterwards  bishop  of  Irenopolis    in 

Cilicia  (j^^  Cod.  CVII.). 


36  JOHN  PHILOPONUS 

begins  with  the  death  of  Simplicius,  bishop  of  Rome,^  who 
wrote  to  Acacius  of  Constantinople  ^  to  have  no  dealings  with 
Peter  surnamed  Mongus,^  who  was  then  corrupting  Alexandria 
by  anathematizing,  publicly  and  in  church,  the  holy  council  of 
Chalcedon.  It  was  through  him  that  Acacius  was  deprived  of 
his  see ;  for  although  Acacius  at  first  was  justly  incensed 
against  him,  he  subsequently  showed  no  aversion  to  his 
doctrines  and  thereby  incurred  the  suspicion  of  being  a  heretic. 
This  matter  came  up  again  during  the  reign  of  Zeno.  The 
history  begins  at  this  time  and  goes  down  to  the  death  of 
Anastasius,  after  he  had  reigned  twenty-seven  years  and  three 
months,  Justin  the  Thracian  being  proclaimed  his  successor.'* 
The  present  book  finishes  about  this  time,  and  embraces  the 
period  from  Zeno  to  the  death  of  Anastasius  and  the  proclama- 
tion of  Justin  as  emperor.  The  author  also  states  that  two 
other  books  were  written  by  him,  the  first  and  the  third ;  the 
first  beginning  with  the  reign  of  Marcian  and  ending  with  that 
of  Zeno,  where  the  second  begins,  while  the  third  continues  the 
narrative  of  the  second,  beginning  with  the  reign  of  Justin. 

The  author's  style  is  rather  slovenly  and  uneven.  He  also 
introduces  a  large  amount  of  episcopal  correspondence,  the 
object  of  which,  he  says,  is  to  prove  what  he  writes;  these 
vastly  increase  the  bulk  of  the  book  and  contain  but  little 
history,  and  that  buried  under  a  mass  of  verbiage.  The 
clearness  of  the  narrative  is  destroyed  by  the  number  of 
parentheses. 

XLIII 

Read  the  treatise  of  John  Philoponus  on  the  Hexaemeron} 
In  this  his  style  is  pure  and  clear  and  better  than  usual.  He 
agrees  in  the  main  with  Basil  the  Great,  but  everywhere 
opposes  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  who,  taking  up  the  same 
subject,  wrote  his  Interpretation  of  Genesis^  which  Philoponus 
in  turn  endeavours  to  refute. 

XLIV 

Read  the  eight  books  of  the  Life  of  Apollonius  of  Tyana  by 

1  468-483.  2  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (471-489). 

3  The  "  Stammerer,"  Monophysite  patriarch  of  Alexandria  (482). 
*  The  work  therefore  covers  the  period  from  450-527. 
6  The  Six  Days'  Work  of  the  Creation. 


PHILOSTRATUS  OF  TYRE  37 

Philostratus  ^  of  Tyre.^  His  style  is  clear,  agreeable,  concise, 
and  full  of  charm,  due  to  his  fondness  both  for  archaisms  and 
for  novel  constructions. 

He  tells  us  that  Apollonius  visited  the  Indians,  whom  he 
calls  Brahmins,  from  whom  he  learnt  much  of  their  divine 
wisdom.  He  also  visited  the  wise  men  of  Aethiopia,  whom 
he  calls  Gymni^^  because  they  pass  all  their  life  naked  and 
never  wear  clothes  even  in  the  most  trying  weather.  But  he 
declares  that  the  wise  men  of  India  are  far  superior  to  those 
of  Aethiopia,  since  they  are  older  in  point  of  time  and  their 
intellect  is  purer  and  keener,  owing  to  their  living  nearer  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun. 

He  does  not,  however,  assert  that  Apollonius  worked  any 
wonders  such  as  legend  ascribes  to  him ;  he  merely  extols 
him  as  leading  a  philosophic  and  temperate  life,  in  which  he 
exhibits  the  teaching  of  Pythagoras,  both  in  manners  and 
doctrine.  Various  accounts  are  given  of  his  death,  the 
circumstances  of  which  are  obscure,  as  he  himself  desired  ;  for 
during  his  lifetime  he  was  in  the  habit  of  saying  that  the  wise 
man  should  keep  his  life  a  secret  from  others,  or,  if  he  could 
not,  should  at  least  keep  his  death  a  secret*  The  place  of 
his  burial  is  unknown. 

Philostratus  states  that  Apollonius  had  a  great  contempt  for 
riches  ;  he  gave  up  all  he  possessed  to  his  brother  and  others, 
and  could  never  be  persuaded  to  accept  money  from  those  in 
authority,^  although  they  pressed  it  upon  him  as  deserving  it. 
He  asserts  that  he  long  foresaw  the  famine  at  Ephesus  and 
stopped  it  after  it  broke  out.  He  once  saw  a  certain  lion, 
which  he  declared  to  be  the  soul  of  Amasis,  king  of  the 
Egyptians,®  which  had  entered  the  body  of  the  animal  as  a 

1  There  were  three  sophists  of  this  name  belonging  to  a  Lemnian  family  : 
(i)  who  lived  in  the  second  century  ;  (2)  son  of  (i),  who  lived  first  at  Athens, 
then  at  Rome  and  in  the  time  of  Philip  the  Arab  (244-249) ;  (3)  nephew 
of  (i),  who  lived  in  the  lime  of  Caracalla  and  Elagabalus.  The  Life  of 
Apollonius  is  by  (2),  Flavius  Philostratus,  who  wrote  it  at  the  desire  of  the 
empress  Julia  Doinna,  wife  of  Septimius  Severus  (died  217). 

*  The  surname  Tyriiis  is  probably  due  to  a  confusion  of  Ivpios  with 
2T«i/3ieus  (of  the  Athenian  deme  Stiria),  or  Phoiius  has  wrongly  identified 
him  with  the  lexicographer  Philostratus  of  Tyre  (Cod.  CL. ). 

'  The  naked  ones,  the  Gymnosophists. 

*  The  Epicurean  maxim,  Aa0e  ^iwcas,  et  5e  fxi],  AaOe  aTrodavMV. 
^  Or,  "those  possessed  of  large  means." 

^  570-526  B.C. 


38  ANDRONICIANUS 

punishment  for  the  crimes  Amasis  had  committed  during  his 
lifetime.  He  also  exposed  an  Empusa,^  which,  under  the 
guise  of  a  courtesan,  pretended  to  be  enamoured  of  Menippus.^ 
He  recalled  to  life  a  Roman  girl  who  had  apparently  just  died, 
and  loosed  his  limbs  from  his  fetters,  while  bound  in  prison. 
Before  Domitian  he  defended  himself  and  extolled  Nerva 
(Domitian's  successor);  after  which  he  vanished  from  the 
court,  and  joined  Demetrius^  and  Damis*  as  had  been 
arranged,  not  after  a  long  time,  but  in  a  few  moments,  though 
they  were  several  days'  journey  apart.  Such  are  the  fictions  of 
Philostratus  concerning  ApoUonius.  He  denies,  however,  that 
he  was  a  wonder-worker,  if  he  performed  some  of  the  wonders 
that  are  commonly  attributed  to  him,  but  asserts  that  they 
were  the  result  of  his  philosophy  and  the  purity  of  his  life. 
On  the  contrary,  he  was  the  enemy  of  magicians  and  sorcerers 
and  certainly  no  devotee  of  magic. 

All  that  he  says  about  the  Indians  is  a  tissue  of  absurd  and 
incredible  statements.  He  asserts  that  they  have  certain  jars 
full  of  rains  and  winds,  with  which  in  time  of  drought  they  are 
able  to  water  the  country,  and  again  to  deprive  it  of  moisture, 
after  the  rain  has  fallen,  since  in  these  casks  they  have  the 
means  of  controlling  the  alternate  supply  of  wind  and  rain. 
He  tells  similar  stories,  equally  foolish  and  preposterous,  and 
these  eight  books  are  so  much  study  and  labour  lost. 

XLV 

Read  two  pamphlets  by  Andronicianus  ^  Agamst  the 
Eunomians.  In  the  preface  he  promises  much  that  he  does 
not  perform,  at    any  rate  in    the    second    book.     He    shows 

^  A  sort  of  hobgoblin  or  ghoul,  suppoe^ed  to  devour  human  beings. 

^  Of  Lycia.     Perhaps  the  Cynic  who  lived  in  Lucian's  time. 

^  Cynic  philosopher  of  Sunium,  who  taught  at  Rome  under  the 
emperors  Gains,  Nero,  and  Vespasian.  He  is  said  to  have  met  ApoUonius 
in  Athens,  but  considering  that  his  philosophical  views  were  opposed  to 
those  of  ApoUonius,  the  account  of  the  intimacy  is  probably  untrue. 
Demetrius  had  to  leave  Rome  because  of  the  freedom  with  which  he 
attacked  the  emperor  and  the  authorities. 

*  Of  Nineveh,  pupil  and  companion  of  ApoUonius,  the  reputed  author  of 
the  life  which  formed  the  basis  of  Philostratus's  romance.  He  is  said  to 
have  handed  over  the  MS.  to  the  empress  Julia  Domna,  who  ordered 
Philostratus  to  edit  it. 

^  Nothing  is  known  of  him. 


THEODORET  39 

himself  a  devoted  student  of  philosophy  in  character,  sentiment, 
and  style.     By  religion  he  is  a  Christian. 

XLVI 

Read  twenty-seven  books  by  Theodoret,  bishop  of  Cyrrhus, 
against  various  heretical  propositions.^  The  first  book  is 
directed  against  those  who  assert  that  the  God- Word  was  one 
nature  and  that  it  took  its  beginning  from  the  seed  of  David, 
and  also  against  those  who  attribute  passions  to  the  Godhead. 
In  the  second,  he  supports  his  contentions  more  by  arguments 
from  Scripture.^  The  third  deals  with  the  same  subject.  The 
fourth  contains  the  teachings  of  the  holy  Fathers  concerning 
the  glorious  Dispensation  (Incarnation)  ^  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  the  Son  of  God.  The  fifth  contains  a  collection  of  the 
opinions  of  the  heretics,  which  are  compared  with  the  opinion 
of  those  who  do  not  admit  tw^o  natures  in  Christ  and  shown 
to  be  nearly  akin.  The  sixth  distinctly  states  that  there  is 
one  Son,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The  seventh  is  in  the  form 
of  a  letter  completing  the  first  book.  The  eighth  is  written 
against  those  who  judge  the  truth  only  by  the  opinion  of  the 
multitude.  The  ninth  is  against  those  who  assert  that  we 
should  neither  seek  arguments  nor  quote  from  the  Scriptures, 
but  that  we  must  be  satisfied  with  our  faith.  The  tenth  is 
against  those  who  malevolently  bring  forward  the  argument 
that  "the  Word  was  made  flesh."  The  eleventh  is  against 
those  who  forbid  us  to  assume  two  natures  in  the  Incarnation. 
The  twelfth  is  against  those  who  assert  that  he  who  says  the 
Word  is  one  thing  and  the  flesh  another,  assumes  there  are 
two  Sons.  The  thirteenth  is  against  those  who  say  that  to 
regard  Christ  as  a  man  is  to  put  one's  hopes  in  man.  The 
fourteenth  is  against  those  who  say,  "He  suffered  without 
suffering."  The  fifteenth  is  against  those  who  say,  "  He 
suff"ered  as  he  willed."  The  sixteenth  is  against  those  who  say 
that  w^e  ought  to  accept  the  words,  without  regard  to  what  is 
signified  by  them,  which  is  beyond  all  men's  understanding. 
The  seventeenth  is  against  those  who  say,  "  The  Word  suffered 

^  Variously  ascribed  to  Theodoret,  Athanasius,  and  Eutherius,  bishop 
of  Tyana. 

'  Unless  ypa<piKd!)Tepou  means  simply  "more  picturesquely,"  "more 
vigorously." 

*  OiKoyofxia  in  the  Greek, 


40  JOSEPHUS 

in  the  flesh."  The  eighteenth  is  against  those  who  ask 
what  punishment  the  Jews  would  have  suffered,  if  they  had 
not  crucified  God.  The  nineteenth  is  against  those  who  declare 
that  he  who  does  not  believe  that  God  was  crucified  is  a  Jew. 
The  twentieth  is  against  those  who  assert  that  the  angels  who 
ate  with  Abraham  did  not  entirely  put  on  the  nature  of  flesh. 
The  twenty-first  is  against  those  who  depreciate  each  of  the 
miracles,  by  denying  the  flesh.  The  twenty-second  is  against 
those  who  injure  our  race,  by  denying  that  the  Saviour  began 
with  our  nature.  The  twenty-third  is  against  those  who  bid 
us  simply  believe  what  is  said,  without  considering  what  is 
seemly  or  what  is  unseemly.  The  twenty-fourth  is  against 
those  who  do  away  with  the  difference  of  the  two  natures,  after 
the  Passion  and  the  Ascension.  The  twenty-fifth  is  a  summary 
of  all  that  has  already  been  stated  in  detail.  The  twenty- 
sixth  deals  with  the  subsequently  manifested  composition  or 
consubstantiation ;  the  twenty-seventh  with  the  example  from 
the  ordinary  man  (applied  to  Christ).  The  subject  alone  in 
each  case  is  sufficient  to  indicate  which  of  the  above  confirm 
the  orthodox  faith,  and  which  are  at  variance  with  it. 

Read  in  the  same  volume  three  larger  works  than  those 
mentioned,  entitled  Eranistes  (the  Beggar)  or  Polymorphos 
(multiform).^  The  first  teaches  that  the  Word  is  unchangeable ; 
the  second,  that  the  union  is  unmixed ;  the  third,  that  the 
God-Word  is  impassible.  In  a  fourth  book,  these  statements 
are  supported  by  argument.  The  three  books  were  composed 
by  him  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  but  the  rest  are  in  continuous 
prose.  The  style  is  clear,  distinct,  and  pure ;  not  wanting  in 
charm,  and  the  works  abound  in  suitable  reflections. 

XLVII 

Read  the  work  of  Josephus  the  Jew  ^  on  The  Calamities  of 
ih^.  Jeivs.  The  capture  of  lotapata^  (at  which  Josephus  him- 
self was  taken  prisoner)  and  Gischala,^  and  the  desolation  of 

*  It  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  a  representative  of  orthodoxy 
(Theodoret)  and  a  representative  of  Monophysitism,  compared  to  a  beggar 
who  gathers  scraps  of  all  kinds  from  earlier  heretical  writings. 

*  The  well-known  historian  (37-98),  "the  Greek  Livy."  The  Wars 
was  originally  written  in  Hebrew,  and  then  translated  into  Greek.  His 
other  extant  works  are  :  Jewish  Antiquities,  Autobiography,  a  polemical 
treatise  Against  Apion. 

^  In  Galilee. 


JOSEPHUS  41 

other  Jewish  fortresses  is  described,  and  in  the  last  book  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  fortress  of  Masada.^  The 
work  is  in  seven  books.  The  author  has  a  pure  style,  and  is 
apt  at  expressing  his  meaning  with  dignity,  with  distinctness 
and  charm.  In  the  speeches  introduced  he  is  persuasive  and 
agreeable,  even  when  the  opportunity  invites  him  to  take 
opposite  views ;  he  is  clever  and  prolific  in  the  use  of  arguments 
on  either  side,  and  is  extremely  fond  of  aphorisms.  He  is  also 
very  skilful  in  introducing  the  emotional,  in  rousing  the  passions 
and  calming  them. 

He  relates  that  many  signs  and  portents  preceded  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem.  A  heifer  that  was  being  led  to  the  sacrifice 
brought  forth  a  lamb ;  a  light  shone  in  the  temple  and  a  voice 
was  heard  saying,  "Let  us  remove  hence";  the  gates  of  the 
temple,  which  twenty  men  could  hardly  open,  opened  of  their 
own  accord ;  in  the  evening  troops  appeared  clad  in  armour. 
A  man  named  Jesus,  son  of  Ananias,  for  six  years  and  three 
months  incessantly  repeated,  like  one  inspired,  the  words 
"Woe,  woe  to  Jerusalem  !  "  When  he  was  whipped  for  it,  he 
made  no  reply,  but  repeated  the  same  words.  He  was  present 
at  the  capture  of  the  city,  and  while  crying  out  "  Woe,  woe,  to 
the  city ! "  he  was  hit  by  a  stone  from  one  of  the  enemy's 
engines,  and  gave  up  the  ghost. 

Such  were  the  signs  that  foretold  the  taking  of  the  city  ;  but 
it  was  internal  sedition,  together  with  the  enemy,  that  over- 
threw it.  Split  up  into  the  factions  of  Zelotae  and  Sicarii,^ 
they  destroyed  one  another,  and  thus  the  body  of  the  state 
was  cruelly  and  mercilessly  torn  asunder  by  the  common 
people.  The  city  suffered  so  grievously  from  famine  that  the 
inhabitants  were  driven  to  all  kinds  of  excesses ;  a  woman 
even  ate  the  flesh  of  her  ow^n  son.  Famine  was  succeeded 
by  pestilence,  a  clear  proof  that  it  was  the  work  of  the  divine 
wTath,  in  fulfilment  of  the  Lord's  proclamation  and  threat  that 
the  city  should  be  taken  and  utterly  destroyed. 

*  A  Judaean  stronghold  (mod.  Sebbeh). 

*  The  Zealots  and  Sicarii  (assassins)  constituted  the  fanatical  anti-Roman 
Jewish  war  party,  w  hose  desire  was  to  drive  out  the  Romans  and  all  who 
favoured  them.  They  did  not  shrink  from  murder,  and  carried  small 
daggers  (sicae)  to  stab  those  whom  they  considered  the  enemies  of  their 
country. 


42  JOSEPHUS 

XLVIII 

Read  the  treatise  of  Josephus  ^  On  the  Universe,  elsewhere 
called  On  the  Cause  of  the  Universe  and  On  the  Nature  of  the 
Universe.  It  consists  of  two  little  treatises,  in  which  the  author 
shows  that  Plato  contradicts  himself.  He  also  refutes  Alcinous,* 
whose  views  on  the  soul,  matter,  and  the  Resurrection  are  false 
and  absurd,  and  introduces  his  own  opinions  on  the  subject. 
He  proves  that  the  Jewish  nation  is  far  older  than  the  Greek. 
He  thinks  that  man  is  a  compound  of  fire,  earth,  and  water, 
and  also  of  spirit,  which  he  calls  soul.  Of  the  spirit  he  speaks 
as  follows  :  Taking  the  chief  part  of  this,  he  moulded  it 
together  with  the  body,  and  opened  a  passage  for  it  through 
every  joint  and  limb.  The  spirit,  thus  moulded  together  with 
the  body  and  pervading  it  throughout,  is  formed  in  the  like- 
ness of  the  visible  body,  but  its  nature  is  colder,  compared 
with  the  three  other  substances  of  Avhich  the  body  is  com- 
pounded. These  views  are  not  in  harmony  with  the  Jewish  ideas 
of  human  physiology,  and  are  below  the  customary  standard 
of  his  other  writings.  He  also  gives  a  summary  account  of 
the  creation  of  the  world.  Of  Christ  the  true  God  he  speaks 
like  ourselves,  openly  giving  Him  the  name  of  God,  and  de- 
scribing, in  language  to  which  no  objection  can  be  taken,  His 
indescribable  generation  from  the  Father.  This  might,  per- 
haps, cause  people  to  doubt  whether  the  treatise  is  really  by 
Josephus,  although  in  respect  of  style  it  does  not  differ  from 
the  rest  of  his  writings. 

I  find  a  marginal  note  to  the  effect  that  the  work  is  not  by 
Josephus,  but  by  one  Gaius,^  a  presbyter  of  Rome,  also  the 
author  of  The  Labyrinth,*'  and  of  a  dialogue  against  Proclus, 
the  champion  of  the  Montanists.^     The  latter,  which  had  no 

^  The  author  is  most  probably  Hippolytus  of  Rome,  born  in  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  died  soon  after  235. 

*  Platonic  philosopher,  flourished  in  the  first  or  second  century  A.D. 
'  Lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  third  century  a.d. 

*  Others  ascribe  this  also  to  Hippolytus.  It  is  a  question  whether  it  is 
identical  with  The  Little  Labyrinth  mentioned  by  Theodoret. 

^  The  founder  of  the  sect  was  Montanus  of  Phrygia  (latter  half  of  the 
second  century).  He  was  a  priest  of  Cybele,  subsequently  converted  to 
Christianity  and  a  teacher  at  Rome.  According  to  his  followers,  he  was 
the  Paraclete  or  Holy  Spirit  promised  by  Christ.  Amongst  other  things 
they  distinguished  two  classes  of  sins,  those  unto  death  and  those  not  unto 
death  ;  denied  the  validity  of  second  marriages ;    did  not  baptize  in  the 


CYRIL  OF  ALEXANDRIA  43 

ascription,  is  attributed  by  some  to  Josephus,  by  others  to 
Justin  Martyr,  and  The  Labyrinth  to  Origen.  But  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  work  is  by  Gaius,  the  author  of  The  Labyrinth, 
who  at  the  end  of  this  treatise  has  left  it  on  record  that  he  was 
the  author  of  The  Nature  of  the  Unive/se.  But  it  is  not  quite 
clear  to  me,  whether  this  is  the  same  or  a  different  work.  This 
Gaius  is  said  to  have  been  a  presbyter  of  the  Church  at  Rome, 
during  the  episcopate  of  Victor^  and  Zephyrinus,^  and  to  have 
been  ordained  bishop  of  the  gentiles.  He  wrote  another 
special  work  against  the  heresy  of  Artemon,'  and  also  com- 
posed a  weighty  treatise  against  Proclus,  the  supporter  of 
Montanus.  In  this  he  reckons  only  thirteen  epistles  of  St. 
Paul,  and  does  not  include  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

XLIX 

Read  the  treatise  of  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  Against 
the  Blasphemies  of  Nestorius,  in  five  books.  In  these  he  pre- 
serves his  characteristic  style  and  curious  phraseology.  But 
he  is  clearer  than  in  his  letters  to  Hermeias  *  and  his  work 
On  Adoration  in  the  Spirit,  The  language  is  ornate  and 
elaborate,  forced  into  agreement  with  its  peculiar  form,  which 
resembles  prose  p>oetry  that  despises  metre. 


Read  the  treatise  of  Nicias  the  monk  ^  Against  the  Seven 
Chapters  of  Philoponus,  which  he  mentioned  in  his  work  called 
the  Arbitrator.  The  style  is  simple  and  concise,  suitable  for 
controversial  writings,  and  free  from  redundancies.  Also  read 
his  attack  On  the  impious  Severus  and  two  books  Against 
the  Heathen. 

name  of  the  Trinity,  but  in  memory  of  Christ's  death  for  mankind  ;  despised 
the  old  prophets  as  possessed  by  evil  spirits  ;  and  favoured  a  highly  ascetic 
life.  "All  the  ascetic,  rigorous,  and  chiliastic  elements  of  the  Church 
combined  in  Montanism." 

*  189-202.  ^  202-217. 

^  Second  and  third  century,  Adoptianist,  Monarchian  or  anti-Trinitarian. 
His  views  were  subsequently  developed  by  Paul  of  Samosata  (flourished 
260-272).     This  work  is  proliably  identical  with   The  Labyrinth. 

*  Possibly  the  author  of  a  treatise  Ridicule  of  the  Heathen  Philosophers^ 
but  the  time  at  which  he  lived  is  disputed. 

^  Flourished  c.  600, 


44  HESYCHIUS  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE 

LI 

Read  the  four  books  by  Hesychius/  presbyter  of  Constanti- 
nople, On  the  Brazen  Serpent.  The  work  is  meant  for  show, 
and  is  a  studied  attempt  to  work  upon  the  feelings.  It  con- 
tains speeches  to  the  people  put  into  the  mouth  of  Moses,  and 
fictitious  addresses  of  the  people  in  reply.  There  are  also 
elaborate  speeches  of  the  Deity  to  Moses  and  the  people, 
together  with  their  replies,  in  the  form  of  entreaty  and  excuse. 
A  great  part  of  the  work,  which  comprises  a  bulky  volume,  is 
devoted  to  these  speeches.  The  author  himself,  so  far  as  one 
can  judge  from  this  treatise,  is  orthodox. 

LII 

Read  the  account  of  the  synod  held  at  Side'*  against 
the  sect  of  the  Messalians,^  Euchites,^  or  Adelphians.* 
Amphilochius,  bishop  of  Iconium,  presided,  supported  by 
twenty-five  other  bishops.  Read  in  the  same  a  letter  of  the 
synod  to  Flavian,  bishop  of  Antioch,  giving  him  an  account 
of  the  proceedings. 

In  consequence  of  this  letter,  Flavian  summoned  another 
synod  against  these  same  heretics,  assisted  by  three  other 
bishops,  Bizus  of  Seleucia,  Maruthas,  bishop  of  the  Sufareni,^ 
and  Samus.  There  were  also  present  priests  and  deacons  to 
the  number  of  thirty.  The  synod  refused  to  accept  Adelphius's 
profession  of  repentance  or  to  admit  him  when  he  offered  to 
renounce  his  heresy;  for  it  was  shown  that  neither  his  renuncia- 
tion nor  repentance  was  sincere.  The  founders  of  this  sect 
were  Adelphius,  who  was  neither  a  monk  nor  a  priest,  but  one 
of  the  laity,  Sabas,  surnamed  Apokopos  (castrated),  who  assumed 
the  garb  of  a  monk,  another  Sabas,  Eustathius  of  Edessa, 
Dadoes,  and  Simeon,  the  tares  of  the  evil  one,  and  others  who 
grew  up  together  with  them.  Adelphius  and  his  followers  were 
condemned,  although  they  sought  opportunity  for  repentance, 

^  Nothing  is  known  of  him.  It  is  suggested  that  he  may  have  been  the 
Hesychius  who  accused  Eunomius  of  heresy. 

'  In  Pamphylia  (383). 

^  Both  names  mean  "  those  who  pray,"  the  first  being  Syriac,  the  second 
Greek.  They  believed  that  perpetual  prayer  and  asceticism  m  ould  procure 
inspiration  from  the  Holy  Spirit. 

*  From  Adelphius,  one  of  the  first  leaders  of  the  sect. 

^  In  Mesopotamia. 


SYNOD  AT  SIDE  45 

which  was  refused  them,  since  they  were  detected  communi- 
cating in  writing,  as  if  they  shared  their  views,  with  persons 
whom  they  had  anathematized  as  MessaHans. 

Flavian  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Osroenians,  informing  them  of 
what  had  been  done  and  giving  an  account  of  the  punishment 
and  excommunication  of  the  heretics.  The  bishops  who  re- 
ceived it  wrote  back  to  Flavian,  thanking  him  and  expressing 
their  approval.  Litoius,^  bishop  of  Armenia,  also  wrote  inquir- 
ing about  the  Messalians,  and  a  copy  of  the  decree  and  sentence 
of  the  council  was  sent  to  him.  The  great  Flavian  also  wrote 
to  another  Armenian  bishop  on  the  same  subject;  in  this  second 
letter  he  accuses  the  bishop  of  sympathy  with  the  Messalians. 
Atticus,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  also  wrote  to  the  bishops  of 
Pamphylia,  bidding  them  everywhere  expel  the  Messalians  as 
accursed  and  an  abomination.  He  wrote  in  similar  terms  to 
Amphilochius,  bishop  of  Side. 

Sisinnius  of  Constantinople  and  Theodotus  of  Antioch  sent  a 
joint  letter  to  Verinianus,^  Amphilochius,  and  the  rest  of  the 
bishops  in  Pamphylia,  addressed  "  To  our  colleagues,  beloved  of 
God,  Verinianus,  Amphilochius,  and  the  rest  of  the  bishops  in 
Pamphylia  :  Sisinnius,  Theodotus,  and  all  the  holy  synod  which 
by  the  grace  of  God  w-as  assembled  in  the  mighty  city  of  Constan- 
tinople to  consecrate  the  most  holy  Sisinnius,  beloved  of  God, 
and  our  emperor  Theodosius,  beloved  of  Christ,  greet  you  in  the 
Lord."  In  this  letter  from  the  council  Neon  the  bishop  declared 
that  if  any  one,  after  the  excommunication  of  the  Messalians, 
should  at  any  time  be  detected  saying  or  doing  anything  which 
rendered  him  suspect  of  favouring  this  heresy,  he  should  not  be 
allowed  to  retain  his  position,  not  if  he  offered  to  pay  ten  thou- 
sand times  the  penalty  imposed  upon  those  who  repent ;  and 
that  any  one  who  supported  him,  a  bishop  or  any  one  else,  should 
be  liable  to  the  same  penalty.  John  of  Antioch  also  wrote  a 
letter  to  Nestorius  about  the  Messalians.  The  holy  oecumeni- 
cal council,  the  third,  at  Ephesus,^  also  issued  a  decree,  exposing 
the  blasphemies  and  heresies  of  the  Messalian  book  Asceticus 
and  anathematizing  it.  Archelaus,  bishop  of  Caesarea  in 
Cappadocia,  also  wrote  twenty-four  anathematisms  against  these 
articles.  Heraclidas,  bishop  of  Nyssa,  also  wrote  two  letters 
against  them,  in  the  second  of  which  evidence  is  given  of  the 
antiquity  of  the  worship  of  the  holy  images. 

^  Of  Melitene  in  Lesser  Armenia.  '^  Bishop  of  Perga.  ^  431. 


46  SYNOD  AT  SIDE 

Some  time  afterwards,  Gerontius,  presbyter  and  superior  of 
the  monks  at  Glitis,  wrote  to  Alypius,  archbishop  of  Caesarea 
in  Cappadocia,  bringing  various  charges  against  Lampetius,^  a 
profane  impostor,  who  was  the  first  of  the  Messalian  sect  who 
succeeded  in  worming  his  way  into  the  dignity  of  the  priesthood. 
Alypius,  on  receipt  of  the  letter,  commanded  Hormisdas,  bishop 
of  Comana,  to  investigate  the  charges  against  Lampetius.  The 
heads  of  the  indictment  were  :  that  he  had  been  guilty  of  un- 
lawful intercourse  with  women;  that  he  had  used  obscene 
language  in  reference  to  such  matters ;  that  he  sneered  and 
scoffed  at  those  who  chanted  the  hours  as  being  still  under  the 
law.  He  and  the  Messalians  were  accused  of  many  other 
impious  words  and  deeds  ;  and  we  ourselves,  while  endeavour- 
ing, as  far  as  was  in  our  power,  to  lead  them  from  the  error 
which  was  lately  beginning  to  spring  up  again,  have  seen  much 
festering  passion  and  vice  consuming  their  souls.  But  this 
Lampetius,  Gerontius  the  presbyter  being  his  accuser  and 
bishop  Hormisdas  his  judge,  convicted  partly  on  the  evidence 
of  witnesses  and  partly  out  of  his  own  mouth,  was  unanimously 
degraded  from  the  priesthood.  Alypius  of  Caesarea  who  had 
been  misled  and  had  promoted  the  miscreant  to  the  dignity  of 
presbyter  joined  in  the  vote.  This  thrice  sinful  Lampetius 
composed  a  book  called  the  Testa?nent,  in  which  some  of  his 
impious  doctrines  are  inserted  ;  Severus,  who  usurped  the  see 
of  Antioch,  while  still  only  a  presbyter,  refuted  it.  A  certain 
Alpheus,  bishop  of  Rhinocorura,^  defended  Lampetius  as 
innocent  in  word  and  deed  of  the  charges  brought  against  him, 
and  although,  so  far  as  one  knows,  he  introduces  no  blasphemies 
in  his  published  work,  he  was  deprived  of  his  office  as  a  sup- 
porter of  Lampetius.  Another  Alpheus,  who  had  been  ordained 
presbyter  by  Timotheus  of  Alexandria,  was  removed  from  office 
for  the  same  heresy,  as  we  learn  from  a  report  made  by  Ptolemy, 
also  bishop  of  Rhinocorura,  to  the  same  Timotheus. 


LHI 

Read  an  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  synod  held  at 

^  A  Messalian  leader,  almost  as  important  as  Adelphius,     His  followers 
were  called  Lampetians. 

'  On  the  borders  of  Egypt  and  Palestine. 


SYNOD  AT  CARTHAGE  47 

Carthage  ^  in  the  great  church,  while  Faustus  ^  Honorius  was 
emperor  of  the  West,  against  Pelagius^  and  Coelestius.* 
The  president  was  AureUus,  bishop  of  Carthage  and  Dotianus 
of  Telepte,  chief  prelate  of  the  province  of  Byzacena,  sup- 
ported by  distinguished  Church  dignitaries  from  different 
provinces,  to  the  number  of  224.  This  synod  excommunicated 
those  who  asserted  that  Adam  was  created  mortal,  and  that  he 
did  not  suffer  death  as  a  punishment  for  his  sin ;  also  those 
who  declared  that  infants  newly  born  had  no  need  of  baptism, 
because  they  were  not  liable  to  original  sin  from  Adam  ;  also 
those  who  affirmed  that  there  was  a  place  midway  between 
hell  and  paradise,  to  which  infants  dying  unbaptized  were 
removed,  there  to  live  in  a  state  of  blessedness.  Six  other 
similar  articles,  which  hold  the  first  place  in  the  heresies  of 
Pelagius  and  Coelestius,  were  also  anathematized. 

The  emperors  Theodosius  and  Honorius  also  wrote  to 
bishop  Aurelius  condemning  these  same  heretics.  After  this 
Constantius,  the  husband  of  Placidia  and  the  father  of  Valen- 
tinian  the  Younger,  sent  a  decree  to  Volusianus,  praefect  of  the 
city,  ordering  that  Coelestius  should  be  banished.  [This  Volu- 
sianus, uncle  of  Saint  Helena  (Melania),^  at  the  time  was  a 
heathen,  but  when  threatened  with  death  he  became  converted 
to  the  true  faith  and  was  baptized  by  Proclus  ^  of  Constanti- 
nople, where  he  had  been  sent  on  an  embassy.  Perhaps  at 
the  same  time  he  met  that  holy  woman,  who  had  come  from 
Jerusalem  to   the  queen-city.]  "^     Leo  of  Rome  ^  also  wrote 

^  412  or  411. 

^  If  Faushis  be  taken  with  Honorius,  it  will  be  an  epithet  corresponding 
to  Felix  ;  others  render  "in  the  great  church  of  Faustus." 

^  c.  370-440.  According  to  some,  he  was]  a  Hibernian  ;  according  to 
others,  a  Welsh  monk  named  Morgan  ("  sea-born"  =  Pelagius).  He 
resided  in  Rome,  Africa,  and  Palestine,  where  he  is  said  to  have  died. 
The  Pelagians  rejected  the  doctrine  of  original  sin,  but  believed  in  the 
Trinity  and  the  personality  of  Christ. 

*  Coelestius,  a  native  of  Ireland,  pupil  of  Pelagius,  younger  and  more 
vigorous  than  his  master.  It  is  to  him  that  the  influence  of  Pelagianism 
was  chiefly  due.     Some  authorities  make  him  an  Italian. 

'  There  were  two  holy  women  of  this  name  :  the  elder  (350-410),  and 
the  younger  (383-439).  The  latter  is  here  referred  to.  She  was  born  at 
Rome,  but  early  in  life  retired  to  Hippo  in  Africa,  where  she  became 
acquainted  with  St.  Augustine,  and  afterwards  to  Jerusalem,  where  she 
embraced  the  monastic  life  and  died. 

*  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (434-447). 

'  Bekker  states  that  this  paragraph  is  an  addition  by  a  later  hand. 

*  Leo  the  *'  Great,"  pope  440-461. 


48  THE  HERESY  OF 

in  regard  to  the  converted  Pelagians  that,  if  they  desired  to 
be  received  into  the  Church  again,  they  should  anathematize 
their  heresy  in  writing.  In  the  letter  of  Coelestine,  bishop  of 
Rome,^  to  Nestorius  the  same  heretics  are  condemned. 
Coelestine  also  wrote  to  the  bishops  of  Gaul  in  defence  of  the 
teaching  of  St.  Augustine  and  against  those  who  were  embold- 
ened to  speak  rashly  by  the  licence  allowed  to  the  heresy. 
Jerome  the  priest  ^  also  wrote  to  Ctesiphon  ^  in  refutation  of 
those  who  held  the  idea  of  impassibility  (in  other  words, 
against  Pelagius).  This  Pelagius  was  a  monk  and  Coelestius 
was  his  pupil. 

LIV 

Read  a  work  attacking  the  heresy  of  Pelagius  and  Coelestius, 
entitled  A  Copy  of  the  Proceedings  taken  against  the  Doctrines 
of  Nestorius  by  the  Bishops  of  the  West.  It  states  that  the 
Nestorian  and  Coelestian  heresies  were  identical  without  doubt, 
quoting  as  its  authority  a  letter  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria  *  to  the 
emperor  Theodosius.  The  Coelestians,  speaking  of  the  body 
or  the  members  of  Christ,  that  is,  the  Church,  audaciously  deny 
that  it  is  God  (that  is,  the  Holy  Spirit)  who  distributes  to  each 
man  severally,  as  He  wills,  faith  and  all  that  is  necessary  to 
life,  piety,  and  salvation ;  according  to  them,  the  nature  of 
man  as  constituted — which  by  sin  and  transgression  fell 
from  blessedness  and  was  separated  from  God  and  handed  over 
to  death — both  invites  and  repels  the  Holy  Spirit  in  accordance 
with  free  will.  The  Nestorians  hold  and  venture  to  assert  the 
same  opinion  concerning  the  head  of  the  body,  Christ.  Since 
Christ  shares  our  nature  and  God  wishes  all  men  alike  to  be 
saved,  they  say  that  every  one  of  his  own  free  will  can  amend  his 
error  and  make  himself  worthy  of  God  ;  wherefore  He  who  was 
born  of  Mary  was  not  Himself  the  Word,  but,  by  reason  of 
the  nobility  of  His  natural  will.  He  had  the  Word  accompany- 
ing, sharing  the  condition  of  sonship  by  nobleness  alone  and 
similarity  of  name. 

This  Pelagian  or  Coelestian  heresy  flourished  not  only  in  the 
East,  but  also  spread  over  the  West.     At  Carthage  in  Africa  it 

^  422-432.  '  St.  Jerome. 

^  Supposed   to   have   been   a   Roman,    to    whom    Jerome  wrote   from 
Palestine,  in  reply  to  his  request  for  advice  concerning  Pelagianism. 
*  Archbishop  of  Alexandria  (412-444). 


PELAGIUS  AND   COELESTIUS  49 

was  detected  and  refuted  by  Aurelius  and  Augustine,  and 
publicly  condemned  at  various  synods.  Those  who  held  these 
opinions  were  expelled  from  the  Church  as  heretics,  when  Theo- 
philus  was  bishop  of  Alexandria  ^  and  Innocent  bishop  of 
Rome,2  by  Roman,  African,  and  other  Western  bishops.  At 
the  synod  held  in  Palestine,^  however,  at  which  fourteen 
bishops  attended,  Pelagius  was  acquitted.  Some  of  the  charges 
brought  against  him  he  utterly  denied  as  foolish  and  anathe- 
matized, while  he  admitted  having  made  certain  other  state- 
ments, not  however  in  the  sense  attributed  to  them  by  his 
accusers,  but  rather  in  conformity  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  His  accusers  were  Neporus  *  and  Lazarus,^ 
two  bishops  of  Gaul,  who  were  not  present  at  the  inquiry, 
having  obtained  permission  to  absent  themselves  in  consequence 
of  the  illness  of  one  of  them.  So  Augustine  states  in  his 
letters  to  Aurelius,  bishop  of  Carthage, 

After  the  death  of  the  holy  Augustine  certain  of  the  clergy 
began  to  reassert  these  impious  doctrines.  They  began  to 
speak  evil  of  Augustine  and  falsely  accused  him  of  denying 
free  will ;  but  bishop  Coelestine  checked  the  renewal  of  this 
slander,  writing  to  the  bishops  of  the  country  in  defence 
of  that  godlike  man  and  against  those  who  had  set  this  heresy 
on  foot  again.  As  time  went  on,  and  these  heretics,  after 
having  abjured  their  own  doctrines,  were  received  again  into 
the  Church,  the  scandal  was  again  revived  by  them,  and  had  to 
be  put  down  before  it  went  further  by  bishop  Septimus,^  who 
wrote  to  Leo,  pope  at  that  time  and  a  fervent  opponent  of 
these  impious  doctrines.  Not  long  afterwards,  when  the 
shameless  heresy  again  sprang  up  from  an  evil  root,  certain 
persons  at  Rome  openly  expressed  themselves  in  favour  of  it. 
But  Prosper,"  truly  a  man  of  God,  in  his  pamphlets  against 
them,  soon  crushed  them,  while  Leo  still  occupied  the  papal 
throne.  The  heresy  was  also  condemned  at  the  holy  synod  of 
Ephesus.^     John,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,^  in  his  Apologia  to 

1  385-412.  2  402-417. 

'  At  Diospolis,  the  ancient  Lydda  (415). 
*  Or  rather  Heros,  bishop  of  Aries. 
^  Bishop  of  Aix. 

^  Bishop  of  Altinum  (mod.  Altino)  near  Venice. 

'  Prosper  of  Aquitaine  (403-463).     He  was  the  author  of  two  or  ihrte 
vahiable  Chronicles  and  a  number  of  theological  works. 

^431.  '^  Afterwards  b'.shop  of  Xola. 

VOL.  I.  -  D 


50  JOHN  PHILOPONUS 

Gelasius,  bishop  of  Rome,  ^anathematized  not  only  the  Pelagian 
heresy,  but  Pelagius  and  Coelestius  themselves,  together  with 
Julian, 2  who  was  known  to  have  succeeded  them  in  the 
leadership  of  this  sect. 

LV 

Read  the  treatise  of  John  Philoponus  (or  rather  Mataeoponus) 
Against  the  Holy  Fourth  Oecumenical  Council}  The  style  is 
characteristic  of  him.  He  shamelessly  attempts  to  prove  that 
the  council  favoured  the  heresy  of  Nestorius,  and  declares  that 
it  acquiesced  in  his  excommunication,  because  it  imagined  it 
was  doing  no  harm  to  the  man^  by  ratifying  his  doctrine, 
which  Nestorius  himself,  on  whom  the  condemnation  fell, 
fondly  cherished  and  regarded  as  the  most  important  thing  of 
all ;  wherein  he  indulges  in  fabrications  and  outrageous  state- 
ments, on  a  par  with  his  mental  capacity  and  the  unsteadiness 
of  his  opinions.  The  audacious  and  idle  assertions  which  he 
makes  against  the  council,  a  comedy  in  four  parts,  are  in  no 
way  deserving  of  credit  or  even  sensible. 

In  the  same  volume  read  a  treatise  by  another  John,  a 
Nestorian,  Against  the  same  Holy  Fourth  Council.  The  author 
is  John  of  Aegae,^  an  impious  person,  but  his  diction  has  beauty 
and  charm,  and  is  brilliant  and  perspicuous. 

LVI 

Read  the  treatise  of  Theodoret  of  Cyrrhus  Against  Heresies^ 
from  the  time  of  Simon  ^  down  to  those  which  sprang  up  in  his 
own  age.  It  is  dedicated  to  a  certain  Sporacius,'^  who  was 
fond  of  hearing  about  such  matters.  It  goes  down  to  Nestorius 
and  his  heresy,  on  which  he  pours  forth  unmitigated  censure, 
and  even  farther,  to  the  heresy  of  Eutyches.  In  the  last  of 
the  five  books  which  the  treatise  contains,  he  gives  a  summary 

^  492-496. 

2  Bishop  of  Eclana,  near  Beneventum,  a  Pelagian  leader  (fifth  century). 

'  451  . 

*  If  this  is  not  somewhat  ungrammatically  for  r^v  &v6puTrov,  the  sense  may 
be  general,  "  to  a  man,"  z'.e.  a  person  would  not  feel  injured  if  the  point  on 
which  he  laid  most  stress  were  conceded. 

^  Cod.  XLI.  But  he  is  obviously  a  Eutychian,  not  a  Nestorian,  unless 
the  mistake  is  in  Cod.  XLI.,  some  other  John  being  really  the  author, 

'  Magus  {see  Acts  viii.). 

'  Count  of  the  domestics  (captain  of  the  palace  guards),  consul  453. 


APPIAN  51 

of  divine  and  orthodox  doctrine  compared  with  idle  heretical 
talk,  showing  that  it  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  latter, 
but  is  pure  and  irreprehensible.  The  style  is  clear  and  free 
from  redundancies. 

LVII 

Read  Appian's  ^  Roman  History,  in  three  parts  and  twenty- 
four  books.  The  first  treats  of  the  seven  kings,  Romulus, 
Numa  Pompilius,  Ancus  Hostilius,^  Ancus  Marcius  (grandson 
of  Numa),  Tarquinius  (Priscus),  Servius  Tullius,  Lucius 
Tarquinius,  son  of  Tarquinius,^  of  whose  acts  and  deeds  it 
contains  an  account.  The  first  of  these,  the  founder  and  oekist 
of  the  city,  although  his  rule  was  rather  patriarchal  than  tyran- 
nical, was  nevertheless  assassinated,  or,  according  to  others, 
disappeared  from  view.  The  second,  in  no  way  inferior  as  a 
ruler  to  his  predecessor,  or  perhaps  even  his  superior,  died  at 
the  age  of  .  .  .  The  third  was  struck  by  lightning.  The 
fourth  succumbed  to  disease.  The  fifth  was  murdered  by 
shepherds.  The  sixth  was  also  murdered.  The  seventh  was 
deposed  and  driven  out  of  the  city  for  his  tyranny.  After  this, 
the  monarchy  was  abolished,  and  its  powers  transferred  to  consuls. 
Such  is  the  contents  of  the  first  book,  which  is  entitled  The 
Book  of  the  Kings.  The  second  book,  entitled  Italica,  gives 
an  account  of  the  history  of  Italy  with  the  exception  of  that 
part  which  is  situated  on  the  Ionian  Sea.  The  following  book, 
Samnitica,  relates  the  wars  of  the  Romans  with  the  Samnites,*a 
powerful  nation  and  an  enemy  difificult  to  conquer  whom  it 
took  the  Romans  eighty  years  to  subdue,  and  the  other 
nations  who  fought  on  their  side.  The  fourth,  Celtica,  relates 
the  wars  of  the  Romans  with  the  Celts  (Gauls).  The  remain- 
ing books  are  similarly  named.  The  fifth  contains  the  History 
of  Sicily  and  the  other  Islands,  the  sixth  gives  an  account  of 

^  Of  Alexandria,  lived  at  Rome  during  the  reigns  of  Trajan,  Hadrian, 
and  Antoninus  Pius  (between  98-161).  Of  the  twenty-four  books  of  the 
Roman  History,  which  Photius  had  before  him,  only  eleven  (besides  the 
Preface)  are  completely  preserved  ;  the  others  are  entirely  lost,  or  only 
fragments. 

'  Usually  known  as  Tullus  Hoslilius. 

^  Usually  known  as  Tarquinius  Superbus. 

■*  The  most  important  were  the  three  following  :  343-341  ;  326-304,  in 
*vhich  the  disaster  of  the  Caudine  Forks  befell  the  Romans;  29S-290,  in 
which  the  Samnites  suffered  a  decisive  defeat  at  Sentinum  (295). 


52  APPIAN 

Iberian  affairs,  the  seventh  of  the  Hannibalic  wars,  the  eighth 
of  Libyan  affairs  (dealing  with  Carthage  and  Numidia),  the 
ninth  of  Macedonian  affairs,  the  tenth  of  Greek  and  Ionian 
affairs,  the  eleventh  of  Syrian  and  Parthian  affairs,  the  twelfth 
of  the  Mithradatic  war.  Up  to  this  point  the  relations  and 
wars  of  the  Romans  with  foreign  nations  are  set  forth  in  this 
order.  The  books  that  follow  describe  the  civil  wars  and 
disturbances  amongst  the  Romans  themselves.  They  are  en- 
titled the  first  and  second  books  of  the  Civil  Wars  and  so  on 
down  to  the  ninth,  which  is  the  twenty-first  book  of  the  whole. 
The  twenty-second  book  is  called  Hekatontaeiia  (the  history  of 
one  hundred  years),  the  twenty-third,  Dacica,  on  Dacian  affairs, 
the  twenty-fourth,  Arahica,  on  Arabian  affairs. 

Such  are  the  divisions  of  the  entire  work.  The  account  of 
the  civil  wars  contains  first  the  war  between  Marius  and 
Sulla,  then  that  between  Pompey  and  Julius  Caesar,  after  their 
rivalry  took  the  form  of  violent  hostilities,  until  fortune 
favoured  Caesar  and  Pompey  was  defeated  and  put  to  flight. 
Next,  it  describes  the  proceedings  of  Antony  and  Octavius 
Caesar  (also  known  as  Augustus)  against  the  murderers  of 
Julius  Caesar,  at  the  time  when  many  distinguished  Romans 
were  put  to  death  without  a  trial.  Lastly,  the  desperate 
conflict  between  Antony  and  Augustus,  accompanied  by 
terrible  slaughter,  in  which  victory  declared  for  Augustus. 
Antony,  deserted  by  his  allies^  was  driven  a  fugitive  to  Egypt, 
where  he  died  by  his  own  hand.  The  last  book  of  the  Civil 
Wars  describes  how  Egypt  came  into  the  power  of  the  Romans, 
and  how  Augustus  became  the  sole  ruler  of  Rome. 

The  history  begins  with  Aeneas,  the  son  of  Anchises,  the 
son  of  Capys,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  After 
the  capture  of  Troy  Aeneas  fled,  and  after  much  wandering 
landed  on  the  coast  of  Italy  at  a  place  called  Laurentum, 
where  his  camp  is  shown,  and  the  coast  is  called  after  him 
Troja.  Faunus,  son  of  Mars,  who  was  at  the  time  ruler  of 
the  original  Italian  inhabitants,  gave  his  daughter  Lavinia  in 
marriage  to  Aeneas  and  a  piece  of  land  400  stades  in 
circumference,  on  which  Aeneas  built  a  city  and  called  it 
Lavinium  after  his  wife  Lavinia.  Three  years  later,  Faunus 
died,  and  Aeneas,  who  succeeded  to  the  throne  by  right  of 
kinship,  gave  the  aborigines  ^  the  name   of  Latins  from   his 

^  AUempts  to  identify  these  people  have  proved  unsatisfactory.     The 


APPIAN  '  53 

father-in-law  Latinus  Faunus.  After  another  three  years, 
Aeneas  was  killed  in  battle  against  the  Rutulians  of  Tyrrhenia, 
to  whose  king  Lavinia  had  formerly  been  betrothed.  He  was 
succeeded  by  Euryleon,  surnamed  Ascanius,  the  son  of  Aeneas 
by  Creiisa  the  daughter  of  Priam,  who  was  his  wife  at  Troy. 
According  to  others,  however,  the  Ascanius  who  succeeded 
him  was  his  son  by  Lavinia.  Ascanius  died  four  years  after 
he  had  founded  the  city  of  Alba  with  a  body  of  settlers  from 
Lavinium,  and  Silvius  became  king.  The  son  of  this  Silvius 
is  said  to  have  been  Aeneas  Silvius,  and  the  son  of  Aeneas 
Latinus  Silvius.  His  descendants  were  Capys,  Capetus, 
Tiberinus,  and  Agrippa,  said  to  be  the  father  of  Romulus, 
who  was  killed  by  lightning,  leaving  a  son  Aventinus,  who 
had  a  son  named  Procas.  All  these  are  said  to  have 
been  surnamed  Silvius.  Procas  had  two  children,  the  elder 
named  Numitor,  the  younger  Amulius.  When  the  elder 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  the 
younger  got  possession  of  it  by  force  and  crime,  killed  his 
brother's  son  Egestus,  and  made  his  daughter  Rhea  a  priestess, 
so  that  she  might  not  have  children.  But  Numitor's  mildness 
and  gentleness  saved  him  from  the  plot  against  his  life. 
Silvia  broke  her  vows  and  became  pregnant,^  and  was  seized 
by  Amulius  for  punishment,  her  two  sons  being  given  to  some 
shepherds  to  be  thrown  into  the  river  Tiber  near  at  hand. 
The  infants,  Romulus  and  Romus,^  were  descended  from 
Aeneas  on  the  mother's  side ;  the  name  of  their  father  was 
unknown.^ 

As  already  stated,  the  history  begins  with  a  rapid  account 
of  Aeneas  and  his  descendants ;  but  from  the  time  of 
Romulus,  the  oekist*  of  the  city,  it  gives  full  details  of  events 
to  the  reign  of  Augustus,  and,  here  and  there,  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Trajan. 

Appian  was  an  Alexandrian  by  birth,  and  at  first  an  advocate 


name  is  variously  derived  fiom  ab  origine,  tlie  primeval  inhabitants, 
children  of  the  soil  =  Gk.  avT6xQov€s  ;  from  aberrai-e^  the  nomads  ;  or 
from  0op€lyevoi,  mountain-dwellers. 

^  By  the  god  Mars.  ^  Remus. 

3  One  ]\1S.  has  an  enlarged  paragraph:  "for,  detesting  their  unknown 
father,  they  rather  prided  themselves  on  descent  from  Aeneas." 

^  The  Greek  word  ohiKTriis  (oekist)  denotes  the  founder  of  a  colony  and 
head  of  a  band  of  colonists. 


54  ARRIAN 

at  Rome,  being  subsequently  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  pro- 
curator ^  under  the  emperors.  His  style  is  dry  and  free  from 
redundancies ;  as  an  historian,  he  is  trustworthy  to  the  best  of 
tiis  ability,  and  an  excellent  authority  on  military  matters ;  the 
speeches  which  he  introduces  are  admirably  calculated  to 
encourage  soldiers  when  dispirited,  to  restrain  them  when  too 
ardent,  to  express  and  faithfully  represent  the  emotions  and 
feelings.     He  flourished  in  the  reigns  of  Trajan  and  Hadrian. 

Lvni 

Read  Arrian's^  Parthica  (History  of  Parthia)  in  seventeen 
books.  He  has  also  written  the  best  account  of  the  campaigns 
of  Alexander  of  Macedon.  Another  work  of  his  is  Bithynica 
(History  of  Bithynia),  relating  the  affairs  of  his  native  country. 
He  also  wrote  an  Alanica  (History  of  the  Alani).^  In  the 
Parthica  he  gives  an  account  of  the  wars  between  Parthia  and 
Rome  during  the  reign  of  Trajan.  He  considers  the  Parthians 
to  have  been  a  Scythian  race^  which  had  long  been  under  the 
yoke  of  Macedonia,  and  revolted,  at  the  time  of  the  Persian 
rebellion,*  for  the  following  reason.  Arsaces  and  Tiridates 
were  two  brothers,  descendants  of  Arsaces,  the  son  of 
Phriapetes.  These  two  brothers,  with  five  accomplices,  slew 
Pherecles,    who   had    been   appointed    satrap    of   Parthia   by 

^  Probably  of  Egypt.     Others  render  :  "  He  was  thought  worthy  of  the 
management  of  the  affairs  of  the  emperors." 

'  Flavius  Arrianus,  flourished  during  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century 
A.D. ,  and  died  before  1 80.  He  was  born  at  Nicomedia  in  Bithynia, 
studied  philosophy  under  Epictetus  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  soldier. 
He  was  appointed  governor  of  Cappadocia  in  136,  and  consul  in  146.  He 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  his  native  city,  where  he  held  the  lifelong  office  of 
priest  of  Demeter  and  Kore.  In  addition  to  the  works  here  mentioned,  he 
was  the  author  of:  A  Voyage  round  the  Euxine,  a  treatise  on  Tactics,  the 
Order  of  Battle  against  the  Alani  (defeated  by  him  while  governor  of 
Cappadocia),  on  the  Chase,  and  an  account  of  Itidia,  perhaps  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Anabasis  (the  account  of  Alexander's  campaigns),  so  named 
after  the  Anabasis  of  his  model  Xenophon. 

^  Of  which  the  Order  of  Battle  against  the  Alani,  referred  to  above,  is  a 
section. 

*  Rebella7itilus  in  the  Latin  versions  of  Schott  and  Miiller  {Frag.  Hist. 
Gr.  iii.  586).  But  can  Karaa-rpacpevTCDV  mean  this?  The  more  natural 
rendering  would  seem  to  be:  "  wliich  had  long  been  under  the  yoke  of 
Macedonia,  the  Persians  having  been  subdued  at  the  same  time,"  i.e.  by 
the  Seleucids. 


SYNOD   OF   "THE   OAK" 


55 


Antiochus  Theos,^  to  avenge  an  insult  offered  to  one  of  them ; 
they  drove  out  the  Macedonians,  set  up  a  government  of  their 
own,  and  became  so  powerful  that  they  were  a  match  for  the 
Romans  in  war,  and  sometimes  even  were  victorious  over 
them.  Arrian  further  relates  that  during  the  reign  of  Sesostris, 
king  of  Egypt,  and  landysus,  king  of  Scythia,  the  Parthians 
removed  from  their  own  country,  Scythia,  to  the  land  which 
they  now  inhabit.  The  emperor  Trajan  reduced  them  to 
submission  but  left  them  free  under  a  treaty,  and  appointed  a 
king  over  them. 

This  Arrian,  called  the  "young  Xenophon,"  a  philosopher 
and  one  of  the  pupils  of  Epictetus,^  flourished  during  the 
reigns  of  Hadrian,  Antoninus  Pius,  and  Marcus  Antoninus. 
Owing  to  his  remarkable  learning  he  was  entrusted  with  various 
offices  of  state,  and  was  finally  promoted  to  the  consulship. 
He  was  also  the  author  of  other  works :  the  Lectures  of 
Epictetus  his  master,  with  eight  books  of  which  we  are 
acquainted,  and  the  Cofiversations  of  Epictetus  in  twelve  books. 
His  style  is  dry,  and  he  is  a  genuine  imitator  of  Xenophon. 

It  is  said  that  he  was  also  the  author  of  other  works,  but  they 
have  not  come  into  my  hands.  Certainly  he  does  not  lack 
rhetorical  skill  and  power. 

LIX 

Read  the  proceedings  of  the  synod  ^  that  wa's  unlawfully 
summoned  against  St.  John  Chrysostom.  The  presidents  were 
Theophilus,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  Acacius  of  Beroea,  Antiochus 
of  Ptolemais,  Severian  of  Gabala,  and  Cyrinus  of  Chalcedon, 
who  were  bitterly  hostile  to  Chrysostom,  and  constituted  them- 
selves judges,  accusers,  and  witnesses.  There  were  thirteen 
sessions :  twelve  against  Chrysostom,  the  thirteenth  against 
Heraclides,  whom  Chrysostom  had  ordained  bishop  of  Ephesus. 

Owing  to  the  pressure  of  other  business,  however,  the 
deposition  of  Heraclides  could  not  be  ratified.  His  accuser 
was  Macarius,  bishop  of  Magnesia.  The  open  enemy  and 
chief  accuser  of  Chrysostom  was  his  deacon  John.     He  first 

^  Antiochus  II  (king  261-246  B.C.). 

2  Of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia  {c.  A.D.  60-140),  Stoic  philosopher. 

^  The  synod  (403)  "at  the  Oak,"  an  estate  near  Chalcedon,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Bosporus  to  Constantinople,  belonging  to  the  imperial 
prefect  Rufinus.     See  Hefele,    Conziliengeschichte  (Eng.  tr.). 


56  SYNOD   OF   "THE   OAK" 

charged  Chrysostom  with  having  wronged  him  by  ejecting  him 
for  having  beaten  his  own  servant  Eulah'us ;  the  second  charge 
was  that  a  certain  monk  named  John  had  been  flogged  by 
order  of  Chrysostom,  dragged  along,  and  put  in  chains  hke 
those  possessed ;  the  third,  that  he  had  sold  much  valuable 
Church  property  ;  the  fourth,  that  he  had  sold  the  marble  which 
Nectarius  had  set  aside  for  decorating  the  church  of  St. 
Anastasia  ;  the  fifth,  that  he  had  reviled  the  clergy  as  dishonour- 
able, corrupt,  useless  in  themselves,^  and  worthless ;  the  sixth, 
that  he  had  called  St.  Epiphanius  ^  a  fool  and  a  demon ;  the 
seventh,  that  he  had  intrigued  against  Severian,  and  set  the 
decani  ^  against  him ;  the  eighth,  that  he  had  written  a  book 
slandering  the  clergy;  the  ninth,  that,  having  called  all  the 
clergy  together,  he  had  summoned  three  deacons,  Acacius, 
Edaphius,  and  John,  on  a  charge  of  having  stolen  his  hood,* 
and  had  asked  whether  they  had  taken  it  for  any  other  purpose  ; 
the  tenth,  that  he  had  consecrated  Antonius  as  bishop,  although 
he  had  been  convicted  of  robbing  graves ;  the  eleventh,  that  he 
had  denounced  count  John  at  a  seditious  meeting  of  the  troops  ; 
the  twelfth,  that  he  did  not  pray  either  when  walking  to  the 
church  or  entering  it ;  the  thirteenth,  that  he  ordained  deacons 
and  priests  without  standing  by  the  altar ;  the  fourteenth,  that 
he  consecrated  four  bishops  at  once  ;  the  fifteenth,  that  he 
received  visits  from  women  by  themselves,  after  he  had  sent 
every  one  else  out  of  the  room  ;  the  sixteenth,  that  he  had  sold 
by  the  agency  of  Theodulus  the  inheritance  left  by  Thecla  ;  the 
seventeenth,  that  no  one  knew  how  the  revenues  of  the  Church 
were  spent ;  the  eighteenth,  that  he  had  ordained  Serapion  priest 
at  a  time  when  he  was  under  accusation ;  the  nineteenth,  that 
he  paid  no  heed  to  those  who  belonged  to  the  communion  of 
the  world,  w^ho  had  been  imprisoned  by  his  orders,  and  when 
they  died  in  prison  did  not  even  condescend  to  make  arrange- 
ments for  the  interment  of  their  bodies  ;  the  twentieth,  that  he 

^  AvTOTrapaxprjTovs.  Another  reading  is  avTotrapaKXriTovs,  "self- 
invited." 

2  See  CXXir. 

^  Monastic  officials,  who  had  each  ten  monks  under  their  control.  The 
name  was  also  given  to  the  Copiatae  or  /bi'jar// (grave-diggers,  undertakers), 
who  had  to  bury  the  poor  for  nothing. 

■*  Ma0opJo^',  a  covering  for  the  head,  cowl,  hood,  especially  for  females. 
As  used  by  monks,  it  may  possibly  be  identical  with  the  scapular.  Another 
reading  is  u}!.io<p6pLou,  shoulder-cape  (the  L.s.'.in pa//i urn). 


J 


SYNOD   OF   "THE   OAK"  57 

had  insulted  the  most  holy  Acacius,  and  refused  to  grant  him 
an  interview ;  the  twenty-first,  that  he  had  handed  over  the 
presbyter  Porphyry  to  Eutropius  to  be  banished ;  the  twenty- 
second,  that  he  had  also  handed  over  the  presbyter  Venerius 
and  grievously  insulted  him  ;  the  twenty-third,  that  a  bath  was 
heated  for  him  alone,  and  that  after  he  had  bathed,  Serapion 
emptied  the  bath,  so  that  no  one  else  might  use  it ;  the  twenty- 
fourth,  that  he  had  ordained  many  without  witnesses ;  the 
twenty-fifth,  that  he  ate  gluttonously  alone,  living  like  a  Cyclops  ; 
the  twenty-sixth,  that  he  himself  was  accuser,  witness,  and  judge, 
as  was  evident  from  the  case  of  Martyrius  the  proto-deacon, 
and  Proaeresius,  bishop  of  Lycia ;  the  twenty-seventh,  that  he 
struck  Memnon  with  his  fist  in  the  church  of  the  Apostles,  and 
while  he  bled  at  the  mouth  celebrated  the  communion,  the 
twenty-eighth,  that  he  dressed  and  undressed  on  his  throne,  and 
ate  a  lozenge ;  ^  the  twenty-ninth,  that  he  bribed  the  bishops 
who  were  consecrated  by  him  to  oppress  the  clergy. 

Such  were  the  charges  against  this  holy  man.  He  was  four 
times  summoned,  but  refused  to  appear.  He  declared  that,  if 
the  synod  would  remove  his  open  enemies  from  the  list  of 
judges,  he  was  ready  to  appear  and  defend  himself  against  any 
charges  brought  against  him  ;  if  they  refused  to  do  so,  no  matter 
how  many  times  they  summoned  him,  it  would  be  of  no  avail. 

The  first  and  second  counts  were  then  investigated,  after 
which  the  synod  proceeded  to  deal  with  the  case  of  the  bishops 
Heraclides  and  Palladius  of  Helenopolis.  The  monk  John, 
mentioned  by  the  deacon  John  in  the  second  charge  against 
Chrysostom,  presented  a  memorial  accusing  Heraclides  of  being 
a  follower  of  Origen,  and  of  having  been  arrested  at  Caesarea  in 
Palestine  for  the  theft  of  the  clothes  of  Aquilinus  the  deacon. 
Notwithstanding  this,  he  declared,  Chrysostom  had  consecrated 
him  bishop  of  Ephesus.  He  further  accused  Chrysostom  h'm- 
self,  whom  he  blamed  for  all  that  he  had  suffered  at  the  hands  of 
Serapion  and  Chrysostom  owing  to  the  Origenists.  After  this 
the  ninth  and  twenty-seventh  charges  were  investigated. 

Then  bishop  Isaac  again  charged  Heraclides  with  being  a 
follower  of  Origen,  with  whom  the  most  holy  Epiphanius  would 
hold  no  communion  either  at  prayers  or  meals.  He  also 
presented  a  memorial  containing  the  following  charges  against 

^  Chrysostom  advised  the  communicants  to  eat  a  lozenge  (or  little  cake) 
to  avoid  spitting  out  any  of  tbe  sacrament. 


58  SYNOD   OF   "THE  OAK 


5J 


Chrysostom  :  (i)  That  the  monk  John,  already  mentioned,  had 
been  flogged  and  put  in  chains  through  the  Origenists ;  (2) 
that  Epiphanius  refused  to  hold  communion  with  him  on 
account  of  his  connexion  with  the  Origenists  Ammonius, 
Euthymius,  Eusebius,  Heraclides,  and  Palladius ;  (3)  that  he 
neglected  the  duties  of  hospitality  and  always  ate  alone ;  (4) 
that  in  church  he  used  such  language  as  "  the  table  is  full  of 
furies " ;  (5)  that  he  loudly  exclaimed,  "  I  am  in  love,  I  am 
mad  "  ;  (6)  that  he  ought  to  explain  what  "furies"  he  referred 
to,  and  what  he  meant  by  "  I  am  in  love,  I  am  mad,"  expres- 
sions unknown  to  the  Church;  (7)  that  he  licensed  people  to 
sin,  since  he  taught,  "  If  thou  sin  again,  repent  again,"  and, 
"  As  often  as  thou  sinnest,  come  to  me  and  I  will  heal  thee  " ; 
(8)  that  he  uttered  blasphemy  while  in  the  Church,  asserting 
that  the  prayer  of  Christ  was  not  heard,  since  He  did  not  pray 
in  a  proper  manner  ;  (9)  that  he  stirred  up  the  people  to 
reject  the  authority  of  the  synod;  (10)  that  he  had  welcomed 
a  number  of  heathens  who  had  oppressed  the  Christians,  kept 
them  in  the  church,  and  afforded  them  protection;  (11)  that 
he  had  encroached  upon  the  provinces  of  others,  and  conse- 
crated bishops  there  ;  (12)  that  he  had  insulted  the  bishops, 
and  ordered  the  bishops  and  .  .  .^  to  be  ejected  from  his 
house  ;  (13)  that  he  had  subjected  the  clergy  to  unheard-of 
insults  ;  (14)  that  he  had  violently  appropriated  sums  of  money 
left  to  others;  (15)  that  he  performed  ordinations  without  a 
meeting  of  the  clergy  and  contrary  to  their  wish;  (16)  that  he 
had  received  the  Origenists,  but  allowed  those  who  were  in 
communion  with  the  Church  and  had  come  to  him  with  letters 
of  recommendation  to  be  cast  into  prison  without  obtaining 
their  release,  and  even  if  they  died  there,  took  no  further  notice 
of  them;  (17)  that  he  had  consecrated  as  bishops  foreign 
slaves  not  yet  emancipated  and,  in  some  cases,  under  accusa- 
tion ;  (18)  that  he  himself  (Isaac)  had  often  b^en  ill-treated 
by  him. 

Of  these  charges  the  first,  having  been  already  discussed, 
did  not  seem  to  require  further  examination,  but  the  second 
and  seventh,  and  then  the  third  of  the  charges  brought  by 
deacon  John,  were  investigated.    In  this  last  the  archpresbyter 

^  The  word  omitted  is  iKiriyyaTovs,  the  meaning  of  which  the  translator 
has  been  unab'e  to  discover,  Ducange  explains  it  by  QQUciliabithim  as 
specially  used  of  the  synod  of  the  Oak. 


HERODOTUS  59 

Arsacius,  the  successor  of  Chrysostom,  and  the  presbyters 
Atticus  and  Elpidius  somehow  or  other  came  forward  as 
witnesses  against  that  holy  man.  They  and  the  presbyter 
Acacius  also  gave  witness  against  him  on  the  fourth  charge. 
After  these  had  been  investigated,  the  above-mentioned 
presbyters,  with  Eudaemon  and  Onesimus,  demanded  that  the 
synod  should  hasten  its  decision.  Accordingly,  Paul,  bishop 
of  Heraclea,  called  upon  all  to  give  their  vote.  The  members 
present,  forty-five  in  all,  then  recorded  their  opinion,  beginning 
with  bishop  Gymnasius  and  ending  with  Theophilus  of  Alex- 
andria. It  was  unanimously  decided  that  Chrysostom  should 
be  deprived  of  his  episcopate.  A  letter  on  his  deposition  was 
sent  on  the  part  of  the  synod  to  the  clergy  of  Constantinople, 
and  a  report  was  made  to  the  emperors.  Gerontius,  Faustinus, 
and  Eugnomonius  also  presented  three  petitions,  complaining 
that  they  had  been  unjustly  deprived  of  their  episcopates  by 
Chrysostom.  The  emperors  in  reply  sent  an  imperial  rescript 
to  the  synod.  These  were  the  proceedings  of  the  twelfth 
session ;  the  thirteenth,  as  has  been  stated,  was  occupied  with 
the  case  of  Heraclides,  bishop  of  Ephesus. 

LX 

Read  the  nine  books  of  the  History  of  Herodotus,^  in  name 
and  number  identical  with  the  nine  Muses.  He  may  be 
considered  the  best  representative  of  the  Ionic,  as  Thucydides 
of  the  Attic  dialect.  He  is  fond  of  old  wives'  tales  and  digres- 
sions, pervaded  by  charming  sentiments,  which,  however, 
sometimes  obscure  the  due  appreciation  of  history  and  its 
correct  and  proper  character.  Truth  does  not  allow  her 
accuracy  to  be  impaired  by  fables  or  excessive  digressions 
from   the  subject. 

He  begins  his  history  with  Cyrus,  the  first  king  of  Persia, 
describing  his  birth,  education,  manhood,  and  reign,  and  goes 
down    to   the   reign    of  Xerxes — his    expedition    against    the 

^  Of  rialicnrnassus  (t.  484-424  b.C  ),  the  so-called  "father  of  history." 
His  history,  in  nine  books,  each  named  after  one  of  the  Muses,  gives  an 
account  of  the  Persian  wars  from  the  reign  of  Cyrus  down  to  the  battle  of 
Mycale  in  the  reign  of  Xerxes,  a  period  of  126  years.  It  also  contains 
digressions  on  the  early  history  and  manners  and  customs  of  different 
peoples.  It  is  curious  that  Photius  has  not  devoted  more  attention 
to  him. 


6o  AESCHINES 

Athenians,  and  subsequent  retreat.  Xerxes  was  the  third  who 
succeeded  Cyrus,  the  first  being  Cambyses^  the  second  Darius. 
Smerdis  the  Magian  is  not  reckoned  among  these,  as  a  tyrant 
who  craftily  usurped  the  throne  that  did  not  belong  to  him. 
Darius  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes,  with  whom  the 
history  concludes,  although  it  does  not  go  as  far  as  the  end  of 
his  reign.  Herodotus  himself,  according  to  the  evidence  of 
Diodorus  Siculus,^  flourished  during  these  times.  It  is  said 
that,  when  he  read  his  work,^  Thucydides^  then  very  young, 
who  was  present  with  his  father  at  the  reading,  burst  into  tears. 
Whereupon  Herodotus  exclaimed,  "  Oh,  Olorus  !  how  eager 
your  son  is  to  learn  !  " 

LXI 

Read  the  three  orations  of  Aeschines,^  Against  Tiniarchus 
(the  first  of  his  speeches),  On  the  False  Embassy,  and  Agai7tst 
Ctesiphon  (the  third  and  last).  These  three  speeches  and  nine 
letters  are  said  to  be  his  only  genuine  works  ;  for  which  reason 
the  orations  were  sometimes  called  the  three  Graces,  from  their 
number  and  the  charm  of  their  style,  and  the  letters  the  nine 
Muses.  Another  oration,  the  Delian  law,  was  known  under 
his  name  ;  but  Caecilius  ■*  denies  its  genuineness  and  ascribes 
it  to  another  Aeschines,  an  Athenian  and  contemporary, 

Aeschines  was  one  of  the  "  ten "  Attic  orators.  He  was 
accused  by  Demosthenes  of  having  misconducted  an  embassy,^ 
but  was  not  convicted,  since  the  demagogue  Eubulus,  in  whose 
service  Aeschines  had  formerly  been,^  sided  with  him  against 

1  See  LXX. 

^  To  an  assembly  of  the  Greeks  at  Olympia. 

^  Attic  orator  {c.  390-314  B.C.),  rival  of  Demosthenes.  He  had  a  varied 
career  as  secretary,  third-rate  actor,  orator,  and  statesman.  At  first  an 
opponent  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  he  was  induced  by  bribery  to  favour  his 
cause.  After  his  unsuccessful  attack  on  Ctesiphon  for  proposing  to  bestow 
a  crown  on  Demosthenes  for  his  public  services,  he  retired,  first  to  Ephesus, 
then  to  Rhodes,  and  lastly  to  Samos,  where  he  died.  The  three  speeches 
have  come  down  to  us  ;  the  letters  are  los^. 

^  Caecilius  Calactinus  (from  Kale  Akte  in  Sicily),  Greek  rhetorician, 
flourished  at  Rome  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  He  wrote  a  number  of 
rhetorical,  grammatical,  and  historical  works,  the  chief  being  On  the 
Cha7-acter  of  the  Ten  (Attic)  Orators,  but  none  of  them  has  come  down 
to  us. 

^  To  Philip  of  Macedon. 

®  As  secretary.  Eubulus  was  a  distinguished  financier,  and  a  bitter 
opponent  of  Demosthenes. 


AESCHINES  6i 

Demosthenes,  and  caused  the  jury  to  rise  before  Demosthenes 
had  finished  his  speech.     Subsequently,  when  he  attacked  the 
proposal  of  Ctesiphon  on  behalf  of  Demosthenes  as  illegal 
having  himself  settled  the  amount  of  the  fine  he  was  prepared 
to  pay  if  he  did  not  make  good  the  charge,  he  failed  to  do  so, 
and  left  his  country.     He  first  set  out  for  Asia,  intending  to 
seek  refuge  with  Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  who  was  then  on 
his  Asiatic  expedition,  but  when  he  heard  of  his  death  and 
that  his    successors  were  quarrelling  amongst  themselves,  he 
sailed  to  Rhodes,  where  he  remained  for  some  time,  giving 
young  men  lessons  in  rhetoric.     When  his  admirers  were  at  a 
loss  to  understand   how  so  great  an  orator  could  have  been 
defeated  by  Demosthenes,  he  replied,  "  If  you  had  heard  that 
beast  (meaning  Demosthenes),  you  would  not  be  surprised." 
He   is    said    to   have    been    the    first    to    compose  imaginary 
speeches  and  what  are  called  ^'  declamations  "  in  his  leisure 
hours.     In  his  old  age  he  removed  to  Samos,  where  he  died. 
He  was  of  humble   origin ; "   his  father  was  Atrometus  ;    his 
mother  Glaucothea,  a  priestess.     He  had  two  brothers,  Apho- 
betus  and  Philochares.     At  first,   being  possessed  of  a  loud 
voice,  he  became  a  third-rate  actor ;  then  he  was  copying-clerk 
to  the  Council ;  and  soon  afterwards  came  forward  as  a  public 
speaker.     He   belonged   to  the  philippizing  party  at  Athens, 
and  was  consequently  a  political  opponent  of  Demosthenes. 
He  is  said  to  have  attended  Plato's  lectures,  and  to  have  been 
the  pupil  of  Antalcidas,^  statements  which  are  supported  by  the 
grandeur  of  his  language  and  the  dignity  of  his  inventions."^ 
The    sophist    Dionysius,^   when    he    came  across  the   oration 
Against  Timarchus,  after  he  had  read  the  opening — "  I  have 
never  yet  publicly  indicted  a  citizen  nor  harassed  him  when  he 
was  rendering  an  account  of  his  office  " — is  reported  to  have 
said,  "  Would  that  you  had  indicted  or  harassed  many,  that  so 

^  The  text  is  corrupt  here.  The  sense  required  is  given  in  the 
translation. 

^  According  to  his  own  account,  he  was  of  good  family. 

^  The  only  Antalcidas  appears  to  be  the  author  of  the  humiliating  peace 
with  Persia  (3S7  B.C.),  who  is  not  famous  as  a  rhetorician  or  teacher. 
Sui.las  says  that  Aeschines  was  a  pupil  of  Alcidamas  of  Elaea  (in  Aeolis  in 
Asia  Minor),  a  pupil  of  Gorgias. 

^  The  word  irKaaixara  perhaps  refers  here  to  the  "moulded  form"  of 
style,  not,  as  above,  to  imaginary,  fictitious  speeclies. 

^  Of  Miletus.     He  lived  in  the  time  of  the  emperor  Hadrian. 


62  PRAXAGORAS 

you  might  have  left  us  more  speeches  of  the  kind,"  so  delighted 
was  he  with  this  orator's  style. 

His  language  appears  natural  and  extemporaneous,  and 
does  not  create  so  much  admiration  for  the  writer's  art  as  for 
his  natural  gifts.  Abundant  proofs  of  his  cleverness  and 
ability  are  to  be  found  in  his  orations.  In  his  choice  of  words 
he  aims  at  simplicity  and  distinctness,  and  in  the  structure  of 
his  periods  he  is  neither  so  feeble  as  Isocrates,  nor  so  compressed 
and  concise  as  Lysias,  while  in  verve  and  energy  he  is  not 
inferior  to  Demosthenes.  He  employs  figures  of  thought  and 
speech,  not  to  create  the  impression  of  using  artistic  language, 
but  in  conformity  with  the  necessities  of  the  subject.  Hence 
his  style  appears  direct  and  straightforward,  well  adapted  for 
speaking  in  public  and  for  private  conversation ;  for  he  does 
not  make  constant  use  of  proofs  and  arguments,  and  is  not 
over  elaborate. 

Aeschines,^  the  son  of  Lysanias,  called  Socraticus,  is 
reckoned  by  Phrynichus  and  others  one  of  the  greatest 
orators,  and  his  speeches  as  models  of  Attic  style,  only 
'second  to  those  of  its  best  representatives. 

Lxn 

Read  the  History  oj  Co?isfafiti?ie  the  Great  by  Praxagoras  of 
Athens,-  in  two  books.  In  this  he  tells  us  that  Constantine's 
father,  Constantius,  was  governor  of  Britain  and  Spain ; 
Maximin  ^  of  Rome,  the  rest  of  Italy,  and  Sicily ;  the  other 
Maximin  *  of  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Thrace  ;  Diocletian,  as 
the  eldest,  governed  Bithynia,  Arabia,  Lybia,  and  that  part  of 
Egypt  that  is  watered  by  the  Nile.  Constantine  was  sent  by 
his  father  to  Diocletian  in  Nicomedia  to  be  educated.  At 
that  time  Maximin,^  governor  of  Asia  Minor,  who  happened  to 
be   there,    determined  to   lay  a  plot   against   the   youth   and 

^  Pupil  of  Socrates.  He  spent  some  time  at  the  court  of  Dionysius 
the  Younger  of  Syracuse,  and  ihen  settled  in  Athens  and  wrote  speeches 
for  the  law-courts.  He  also  composed  a  number  of  Socratic  dialogues,  of 
which  seven  were  supposed  to  be  genuine.  The  three  that  pass  under  his 
name  and  some  letters  are  certainly  not  by  him. 

^  Flourished  in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  Both  works  mentioned  by 
Photius  are  entirely  lost. 

^  Should  be  Maximian  (Marcus  Aurelius  Valerius  Maximianus). 

*  Should  also  be  Maximian  (Galerius  Valerius  Maximianus). 

^  Galerius, 


PRAXAGORAS  63 

set  him  to  fight  with  a  savage  lion.  But  Constantine  over- 
came and  slew  the  beast,  and  having  discovered  the  plot,  took 
refuge  with  his  father,  after  whose  death  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne. 

Soon  after  his  accession,  he  subdued  the  Celts  and  Germans, 
neighbouring  and  barbarous  nations.  Having  learnt  that 
Maxentius,  who  had  made  himself  master  of  Rome  after 
Maximin,^  treated  his  subjects  with  cruelty  and  brutality,  he 
marched  against  him,  to  punish  him  for  his  conduct.  He  was 
speedily  victorious  and  put  his  enemy  to  flight,  who  fell  into 
the  pit  which  he  had  prepared  for  others  and  met  the  death 
which  he  had  designed  for  his  enemies.  The  Romans  cut  off 
his  head,  hung  it  on  a  spear,  and  carried  it  through  the  city. 
This  part  of  the  empire  with  joyful  eagerness  submitted  to 
Constantine. 

In  the  meantime,  Maximin  (who  had  plotted  against 
Constantine)  had  died  and  was  succeeded  in  his  government 
by  Licinius.  Constantine,  hearing  that  he  also  treated  his 
subjects  with  cruelty  and  inhumanity,  unable  to  tolerate  such 
brutality  towards  those  of  the  same  race,  marched  against  him, 
to  put  an  end  to  his  tyranny  and  replace  it  by  constitutional 
government.  Licinius,  being  informed  of  the  expedition, 
became  alarmed,  attempted  to  disguise  his  cruelty  under  the 
cloak  of  humanity,  and  took  an  oath  that  he  would  treat  his 
subjects  kindly  and  would  strictly  keep  his  promise. 
Constantine  accordingly  for  the  time  abandoned  his  expedi- 
tion. Soon  afterwards,  however,  since  the  wicked  , cannot 
remain  quiet,  Licinius  broke  his  oath  and  abandoned  himself 
to  every  kind  of  villainy.  Whereupon  Constantine  attacked 
and  defeated  him  in  several  great  battles  and  shut  him  up 
and  besieged  him  in  Nicomedia,  whence  he  approached 
Constantine  in  the  garb  of  a  suppliant.  His  kingdom  was 
taken  away  from  him  and  bestowed  upon  Constantine,  who 
thus  secured  and  became  sole  ruler  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
great  empire,  which  had  long  desired  an  emperor  worthy  of  it. 
He  inherited  his  father's  kingdom  and  that  of  Rome  after  the 
overthrow  of  Maximin, ^  and  obtained  possession  of  Greece, 
Macedonia,  and  Asia  Minor  by  the  deposition  of  Licinius. 
He  further  assumed  control  of  that  part  which  had  belonged 
to    Diocletian,    and    had    been    held  by    Licinius,  who  had 

^  Valerius.  ^  Should  be  Maxentius. 


64  PROCOPIUS   OF  CAESAREA 

seized  it  by  right  of  war  from  Maximin,i  Diocletian's 
successor. 

Being  thus  sole  master  of  a  united  empire,  he  founded 
Byzantium  and  called  it  after  his  own  name.  Praxagoras  says 
that  although  Constantine  was  a  heathen,  in  virtue,  goodness, 
and  prosperity  he  far  excelled  all  his  predecessors  on  the  throne. 
With  these  words  the  history  concludes. 

Praxagoras,  according  to  his  own  statement,  was  twenty-two 
years  old  when  he  wrote  this  history.  He  was  also  the  author 
of  two  books  on  The  Ki?igs  of  Athens,  written  when  he  was 
nineteen,  and  six  books  on  Alexander  King  of  Afacedon,  written 
when  he  was  thirty-one.  His  style  is  clear  and  agreeable,  but 
somewhat  wanting  in  vigour.     He  writes  in  the  Ionic  dialect. 

Lxni 

Read  the  History  of  Procopius^  the  rhetorician  in  eight 
books.  He  relates  the  wars  of  the  Romans  in  the  reign  of 
Justinian  against  the  Vandals,  Persians,  and  Goths,  chiefly 
conducted  by  Belisarius,  whose  intimate  friend  the  writer 
was  and  whom  he  accompanied  on  his  campaigns,  setting  down 
in  writing  events  of  which  he  was  an  eye-witness. 

The  following  is  the  contents  of  the  first  book.  Arcadius, 
emperor  of  the  Romans,  in  his  will  appointed  Yezdegerd,  king 
of  Persia,  guardian  of  his  son  Theodosius.  Yezdegerd  accepted 
the  trust,  fulfilled  his  duties  as  guardian  conscientiously  and 
kept  his  ward's  throne  intact.  On  the  death  of  Yezdegerd, 
Vararanes  his  successor  made  war  against  the  Romans,  but 
after  Anatolius,  master-general  of  the  East,  had  been  sent  by 
Theodosius  on  an  embassy  to  Persia,  he  concluded  a  treaty  and 
returned  home.  After  this  Perozes,  king  of  Persia,  who  suc- 
ceeded another  Yezdegerd,  son  of  Vararanes,  waged  war  on  the 

^  Valerius  Maximinus  called  Daza  or  Daia,  emperor  311-314. 

^  Of  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  died  some  time  after  562.  In  addition  to  the 
eight  books  of  The  Wars  he  was  the  author  of  a  description  of  The  Btiild- 
iiigs  erected  by  Justinian,  and  of  an  Auecdota  or  Chroniqi(e  Scandaleuse 
attacking  the  private  life  of  Justinian  and  his  notorious  wife  Theodora. 
The  genuineness  of  the  last  has  been  disputed.  In  style  Procopius  is  an 
imitator  of  Herodotus  and  Thucydides.  The  title  "  rhetorician  "  given  him 
by  Photius  better  suits  Procopius  of  Gaza,  a  Christian  teacher  of  rhetoric 
(465-528).  For  the  history  of  the  period,  see  Gibbon,  ch.  40  ;  J.  B.  Bury, 
Later  Roman  Etnpire  ;  T.  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  her  Invaders  ;  G.  Rawdinson, 
The  Seventh  Oriental  Monarchy, 


PROCOPIUS  PF  CAESAREA  65 

Huns  called  Ephthalites  or  "  White  "  Huns  from  their  complex- 
ions. They  are  not  ill-looking  and  do  not  resemble  the  other 
Huns.  They  do  not  lead  a  wild  or  nomadic  life,  but  enjoy 
the  protection  of  the  laws  under  their  kings.  They  were  the 
neighbours  of  Persia  on  the  north,  which  induced  Perozes  to 
invade  their  territory  in  order  to  setde  the  question  of  bound- 
aries. The  Ephthalites  cunningly  led  him  into  difficult  country, 
from  which  he  barely  escaped  after  concluding  a  disgraceful 
peace.  He  was  forced  to  do  homage  to  the  king  of  the 
Ephthahtes,  and  was  only  allowed  to  depart  on  taking  an  oath 
that  he  would  never  attack  them  again.  Subsequently,  however, 
he  broke  his  word  and,  having  again  made  war  upon  them, 
was  ignominiously  destroyed  together  with  his  whole  army, 
which  fell  into  pits  and  ditches  cunningly  prepared  by  the 
enemy.  He  died  in  the  twenty-fourth  year  of  his  reign,  on 
which  occasion  the  famous  pearl  which  he  wore  in  his  right 
ear  was  lost. 

Perozes  was  succeeded  by  his  youngest  son  Cabades,^  who 
was  accused  of  violating  the  laws  and  imprisoned  by  the 
Persians  in  the  fortress  of  Lethe.  Having  escaped  with  the 
assistance  of  his  wife  he  took  refuge  with  the  Ephthalites, 
whose  ruler  betrothed  him  to  one  of  his  daughters  and  lent 
him  a  large  army,  with  which  he  marched  against  the  Persians 
and  recovered  his  throne  without  a  fight.  His  brother  Biases,^ 
who  was  ruling  in  his  stead,  was  abandoned  by  his  soldiers, 
seized,  and  blinded  by  boiling  oil  poured  into  his  open  eyes, 
in  accordance  with  a  long-established  Persian  custom.  An 
account  of  the  dispute  between  Pacurius,  king  of  Persia,  and 
Arsaces,  king  of  Armenia,  and  the  advice  hostile  to  Arsaces, 
given  by  the  magi  to  Pacurius,  follows  next.  It  seems  probable, 
however,  that  this  story  is  fictitious. 

The  above-mentioned  Cabades,  who  was  heavily  in  debt  to 
the  Ephthalites,  endeavoured  to  obtain  a  loan  from  Anastasius, 
but  met  with  a  refusal.  Thereupon  Cabades,  without  any 
further  excuse,  suddenly  overran  Armenia  and  besieged  Amida. 
When  he  was  on  the  point  of  abandoning  the  siege  in  despair, 

^  Also  Kobad  or  Kavadh. 

2  Also  Ealash.  According  to  some,  he  was  the  brother,  according  to  others 
the  uncle  of  Cabades.  Authorities  differ  as  to  whether  he  died  a  natural 
death  ;  if  so,  Procopius  and  others  have  confused  him  with  Cabadrs's  brother 
Zamasp. 

VOL.  I.  E 


66  PROCOPIUS  OF  CAESAREA 

a  gross  insult  on  the  part  of  some  women  among  the  besieged 
induced  him  to  turn  back  and  continue  operations.  He 
attacked  with  furious  impetuosity,  took  the  city  by  storm, 
and  carried  off  the  inhabitants  as  slaves.  A  large  number 
of  them  were  subsequently  released  without  ransom,  and 
treated  with  great  kindness  by  Anastasius. 

Anastasius,  hearing  that  Amida  was  besieged,  sent  a  very 
large  force  against  the  Persians,  under  four  commanders — 
Areobindus,  master-general  of  the  East  (son-in-law  of  Olybrius, 
the  former  emperor  of  the  West),  Celer,  captain  of  the 
imperial  household,  Patricius  the  Phrygian,  and  his  own 
nephew  Hypatius.  With  them  were  associated  Justin,  who 
succeeded  Anastasius,  and  many  other  experienced  soldiers. 
It  is  said  that  so  large  an  army  had  never  been  brought  into 
the  field  against  the  Persians,  but  owing  to  its  delay  in  arriving, 
the  city  was  taken  ;  further,  there  was  no  unity  of  operation 
and  the  different  detachments  acted  independently,  with  the 
result  that  they  were  ignominiously  defeated  with  heavy  loss. 
At  last  they  reached  Amida  and  besieged  the  city,  but  while 
they  wasted  time,  the  Persians  within,  who  were  in  great  straits, 
concluded  a  seven  years'  treaty,  which  was  arranged  by  Celer 
and  Asperedes  as  representatives  of  Persia  and  Rome. 

Mount  Taurus  in  Cilicia  first  passes  through  Cappadocia, 
Armenia,  Persarmenia,  Albania,  Iberia,  and  all  the  other 
independent  countries  which  had  become  subject  to  Persia. 
Just  over  the  frontiers  of  Iberia  there  is  a  narrow  path  about 
fifty  stades  in  length,  ending  in  a  steep  and  inaccessible  height ; 
there  is  apparently  no  way  through,  except  by  means  of  a 
natural  exit  which  looks  as  if  it  had  been  made  by  the  hand  of 
man,  called  in  ancient  times  the  Caspian  gate.  Beyond  this 
gate  there  are  plains  suitable  for  riding,  and  full  of  natural 
springs,  and  there  is  an  extensive  tract  of  gently- sloping  country 
which  provides  an  excellent  pasturage  for  horses ;  it  is  nearly 
all  inhabited  by  Huns  as  far  as  the  Palus  Maeotis.^  Whenever 
they  invade  Persian  or  Roman  territory  through  the  Caspian 
gate,  they  ride  at  full  speed  on  vigorous  horses,  since  all  who 
desire  to  enter  Iberia  have  only  to  contend  with  difficult 
country  for  the  fifty  stades  mentioned  ;  if,  on  the  other  hand, 
they  choose  another  passage,  it  is  only  with  great  trouble  that 
they  reach  their  destination.     Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip, 

^  The  Sea  of  Azov. 


PROCOPIUS   OF   CAESAREA  67 

perceiving  this,  built  gates  there  and  erected  a  fortress. 
During  the  reign  of  Anastasius,  this  fortress  was  occupied  by  a 
'  Hun  named  Ambazuces,  a  friend  of  the  Romans  and  Anasta- 
sius, to  whom  he  offered  to  hand  over  control  of  the  gates.  ^ 
Anastasius  thanked  him  for  his  goodwill,  but  refused  to  accept 
the  responsibility.  After  the  death  of  Ambazuces,  Cabades 
forcibly  ejected  his  sons  and  took  possession  of  the  gates. 
Thereupon  Anastasius,  after  the  treaty  had  been  concluded 
with  Cabades,  built  a  stronghold  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Daras,  in  spite  of  the  objections  of  the  Persians,  and  also 
another  city  in  Armenia,  on  the  frontiers  of  Persarmenia,  which 
was  formerly  called  Theodosiupolis,  since  Theodosius  had 
bestowed  upon  it  the  rank  of  a  city  instead  of  a  village. 

On  the  death  of  Anastasius,  although  many  of  his  kinsmen 
were  worthy  to  succeed  him,  they  were  rejected  and  Justin 
elected  emperor.  Soon  after  his  accession,  Cabades,  in  order 
to  secure  the  throne  for  his  youngest  son  Chosroes,  wrote  a 
letter  to  Justin  proposing  that  he  should  adopt  Chosroes. 
Justin  and  his  sister's  son  Justinian,  the  heir-presumptive, 
welcomed  the  proposal,  but  in  consequence  of  the  advice  of 
Proclus  the  quaestor,  who  argued  that  sons  were  the  lawful 
heirs  and  successors  of  their  fathers,"^  they  changed  their  minds 
and  the  adoption  was  not  ratified.  Subsequently,  Seoses  (who 
had  once  saved  the  life  of  Cabades)  and  Beodes^  were  sent 
by  the  Persians,  and  Rufinus  and  Hypatius  by  the  Romans,  to 
discuss  the  terms  of  peace  and  the  adoption  of  Chosroes. 
Seoses  was  accused  of  various  offences  by  Beodes,  tried  by  his 
countrymen  and  condemned  to  death.  Rufinus  also  accused 
Hypatius  to  the  emperor,  who  deprived  him  of  his  office. 

The  country  between  Bosporus  and  Cherson,  which  are  a 
twenty  days'  journey  apart,  is  inhabited  by  Hunnish  tribes, 
who  were  formerly  independent  but  had  recently  submitted  to 
Justin,  Cherson  being  the  last  city  in  Roman  territory.  The 
Iberians  also,  being  ill-treated  by  the  Persians,  declared  them- 
selves vassals  of  Justin  together  with  their  king,  Gurgenes. 
This  was  the  cause  of  war  between  the  Romans  and  the 
Persians. 

^  On  condition  of  a  sum  of  money  being  paid  to  him. 
•  He  was  af"raid  that,  as  Justin  had  no  natural  son,  an  adopted  son  might 
c'aim  to  be  his  heir  and  successor. 
'  Or  Mebodes. 


68  PROCOPIUS  OF  CAESAREA 

During  his  lifetime,  Justin  had  made  Justinian  his  partner  in 
the  empire,  who,  after  his  uncle's  death,  became  sole  ruler. 
Belisarius  and  Sittas  were  the  two  army  commanders  under 
Justinian.  Belisarius  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of 
the  troops  in  Daras,  when  Procopius,  the  writer  of  this  history, 
became  his  secretary.  When  Justinian  was  sole  emperor, 
Belisarius  was  made  general  of  the  East  and  ordered  to  under- 
take an  expedition  against  the  Persians.  Perozes,  the  mirran,^ 
had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  the  Persian  army  by 
Cabades.  While  both  armies  were  encamped  near  Daras, 
Perozes  sent  a  message  to  Belisarius,  bidding  him  prepare  a 
bath  in  the  city,  since  he  intended  to  bathe  there  on  the 
following  day.  The  Romans  accordingly  prepared  vigorously 
for  battle.  During  the  engagement,  one  Andrew,  a  Byzantine, 
a  gymnastic  instructor,  master  of  a  wrestling  school  in  Con- 
stantinople, and  one  of  the  bath-attendants  of  Buzes  (who  was 
associated  with  Belisarius  in  the  command),  when  challenged 
to  a  duel,  made  his  way  through  the  ranks  unnoticed,  and 
defeated  and  slew  his  challenger.  Then  the  battle  was  dis- 
continued. In  a  subsequent  engagement,  the  Persians,  having 
been  completely  defeated  with  heavy  losses,  decided  not  to 
risk  any  more  pitched  battles  with  the  Romans,  and  both  sides 
confined  themselves  to  skirmishes. 

Cabades  then  sent  another  army  into  Roman  Armenia, 
consisting  of  Persarmenians,  Sunites  and  Sabirites,  under  the 
command  of  Mermeroes.  Dorotheus,  general  of  Armenia,  and 
Sittas,  who  was  in  command  of  the  whole  army,  joined  battle, 
and  although  greatly  inferior  in  numbers,  defeated  the  Persians, 
who  thereupon  returned  home.  The  Romans  then  took 
possession  of  some  Persian  territory,  including  the  district  of 
Pharangium,  the  gold  mines  of  which  furnish  a  revenue  for  the 
king.  The  Tzani  (formerly  called  Sani),  an  independent 
people  who  lived  by  plundering  their  neighbours,  were  defeated 
by  Sittas  and  submitted  to  Rome.  They  embraced  Christian- 
ity, and  were  drafted  into  the  ranks  of  the  Roman  army. 

After  the  defeat  of  both  his  armies,  Cabades  was  at  a  loss 
what  to  do.  Then  Alamundarus,  chief  of  the  Persian  Saracens, 
an  experienced  and  vigorous  soldier,  who  for  fifty  years  had 
harassed  the  Romans,  suggested  to  him  that  he  should  attack 

^  Some  take  this  to  be  a  proper  name,  others  the  title  of  the  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Persian  army. 


PROCOPIUS  OF  CAESAREA  69 

Antioch,  which  was  unprotected,  and  ravage  the  neighbouring 
country.  But  Belisarius,  hearing  of  his  intention,  set  out  with 
all  speed  against  him  wiih  a  force  of  Isaurians  and  Saracens, 
the  latter  under  Arethas,  a  Saracen  chief  who  was  on  the  side  of 
Rome.  Alamundarus  and  Azarethes  retired  in  alarm,  closely 
followed  by  Belisarius,  who  did  not  intend  to  force  an  engage- 
ment, but  only  pretended  to  be  pursuing  them.  But  the 
soldiers  reproached  him,  at  first  secretly  and  then  openly,  so 
that  against  his  will  he  consented  to  give  battle.  At  first,  after 
both  sides  had  suffered  hea\ily,  the  issue  remained  in  doubt; 
but  after  the  forces  of  Arethas  and  the  Isaurians  had  given 
way,  the  Persians  gained  a  decided  victory.  Had  not  Belisarius 
dismounted  and  gone  to  the  assistance  of  those  who  remained, 
they  would  all  have  been  destroyed.  Azarethes,  the  Persian 
commander,  on  his  return  received  no  thanks  from  Cabades 
for  his  victory.  For  he  himself  had  lost  a  large  number  of 
men,  although  the  enemy's  losses  had  been  greater,  and  was 
accordingly  regarded  as  disgraced. 

Belisarius  was  recalled  to  Byzantium  by  Justinian  to  com- 
mand the  expedition  against  the  Vandals,  the  protection  of  the 
East  being  entrusted  to  Sittas.  At  this  time,  while  the  Persians 
were  attacking  the  Romans,  Cabades  died  and  was  succeeded 
by  Chosroes.  Hearing  of  this,  the  Romans  sent  Rufinus, 
Alexander,  Thomas,  and  Hermogenes  on  an  embassy  to  him, 
with  offers  to  conclude  an  "  endless  peace  "  and  also  to  pay  a 
sum  of  no  centenars.^  At  first  the  negotiations  were  un- 
successful, and  it  was  not  till  later  that  the  "  endless  peace  " 
was  concluded  in  the  sixth  year  of  the  reign  of  Justinian. 
According  to  its  terms,  the  Persians  received  the  money  agreed 
upon,  and  the  district  of  Pharangium  and  the  fortress  of  Bolon 
were  restored  to  them  ;  on  the  other  hand,  they  abandoned  the 
fortresses  captured  in  Lazica,  and  exchanged  Dagaris,  an 
excellent  soldier,  for  a  Persian  of  rank. 

Soon  afterwards,  their  subjects  conspired  against  both 
Chosroes  and  Justinian.  The  Persians  hated  Chosroes  as 
turbulent  and  restless,  and  were  minded  to  bestow  the  crown 
on  Cabades,  the  son  of  Chosroes'  brother  Zames.  But  the 
plot  was  discovered,  and  Chosroes  put  to  death  Zames  and  his 
other  brothers,  and  all  who  had  taken  part  in  it.  Thus  the 
conspiracy  was  put  down.  Cabades  the  son  of  Zames,  who 
^   11,000  pounds  of  gold,  about  ;i^50o,ooo. 


70  PROCOPIUS  OF  CAESAREA 

was  very  young,  escaped  death  through  the  prudence  and 
compassion  of  Khanaranges  Adergadunbades/  who  \Yas  after- 
wards put  to  death  on  this  account  by  Chosroes. 

The  people  of  Rome  also  rose  against  Justinian  and  declared 
Hypatius,  the  nephew  of  Anastasius,  emperor  against  his  will. 
The  rising  had  its  origin  in  the  circus  factions.^  Belisarius 
and  Mundus,  by  order  of  Justinian,  put  Hypatius  to  death 
together  with  a  number  of  conspirators  and  30,000  of  the 
people.  Justinian  also  had  the  support  of  his  nephews 
Boraides  and  Justus.  In  the  same  book  Procopius  gives  an 
account  of  the  avaricious  and  wily  Tribonian,  a  Pamphylian  by 
birth,  who  held  the  office  of  quaestor,  and  also  of  John,  prefect 
of  Cappadocia,  notorious  for  villainy,  greed,  drunkenness,  and 
vice  of  every  kind.  He  relates  how  Antonina,  the  wife  of 
Belisarius,  making  use  of  John's  daughter  Euphemia,  deceived 
him  and  convicted  him  of  conspiring  against  the  emperor ;  also 
how,  when  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Cyzicus,  was  treacherously 
murdered,  John,  being  suspected  of  the  crime,  was  scourged 
and  ignominiously  banished. 

The  contents  of  the  second  book  is  as  follows.  Chosroes, 
being  anxious  to  break  the  treaty  with  the  Romans,  whose 
conquest  of  Libya  had  roused  his  jealousy,  was  further  incited 
by  Witigis,  king  of  the  Goths,  who  sent  an  embassy  to  him, 
composed  of  certain  Liguriansand  Bassacus,  an  Armenian  chief. 
The  Armenians  had  revolted  from  Rome  and  joined  the  Persians, 
and  the  Roman  commander  Sittas  had  been  killed  while 
fighting  against  them.  Chosroes  thereupon  decided  to  break 
the  "endless"  truce  and  make  war  on  the  Romans.  When  he 
heard  of  this,  Justinian  sent  Anastasius  to  Chosroes  to  advise 
him  not  to  do  so.  In  the  meantime  Witigis  had  been  taken 
prisoner  by  Belisarius,  and  sent  to  Constantinople.  Chosroes, 
however,  crossed  the  Roman  frontiers,  took  the  town  of  Sura, 
and  made  the  inhabitants  slaves.  Soon  afterwards,  Candidus, 
bishop  of  Sergiopolis,  having  offered  to  ransom  the  captives, 
1200  in  number,  he  let  them  go  free  on  receipt  of  a  bond  for 
two  centenars.  But  Candidus,  failing  to  keep  his  promise,  was 
justly  punished.  Chosroes  next  marched  against  Hierapolis, 
and  was  preparing  to  lay  siege  to  it,  when  the  bishop  of  Beroea 
offered  him  2000  pounds  of  silver  if  he  would  abandon  the 
blockade.  Chosroes  consented,  and  even  promised  to  evacuate 
^  A  Persian  title.  '  The  Nika  sedition  (532). 


PROCOPIUS  OF  CAESAREA  71 

the  whole  of  the  Roman  territory  in  the  East  for  1000  pounds 
of  gold.     Meanwhile  Buzes,  general  of  the  East,  not  thinking 
himself  strong  enough  to  oppose  Chosroes,  kept  moving  from 
place    to   place.     Chosroes    then   advanced    to    Beroea,    from 
w^hose   inhabitants  he  demanded  a  ransom    of   2000   pounds 
of  silver,  afterwards  increased  to  twice  that  amount ;  when  they 
failed  to  pay,  he  laid  vigorous  siege  to  the  city.     But  Megas, 
bishop  of  Beroea,  appealed  to  Chosrces  and  induced  him  to  let 
the  inhabitants  go  free,  wherever  they  wished.      Most  of  the 
soldiers  voluntarily  went  over  to  Chosroes,  because  their  pay 
was  greatly  in  arrears.     In  like  manner  Chosroes   demanded 
ransom  from  the  inhabitants  of  Antioch,  and  when  they  refused, 
besieged  it.     While  he  was  vigorously  attacking,  Theoctistus 
and  Malatzes,^  with  the  soldiers  from  the  Lebanon,  secretly  made 
their  way  out  of  the  city  and  fled.     Thus  Chosroes  easily  com- 
pelled Antioch  to  surrender  and  reduced  the  inhabitants   to 
slavery.     Ambassadors    from  Rome  were   then  sent   to    him, 
John   the  son  of   Rufinus   and   Julian    his   private    secretary. 
After  a  long  discussion   as   to  terms,  it  was  agreed  that  the 
Romans  should  pay  Chosroes  5000  pounds  of  gold  down,  and 
500  pounds  every  year  in  the  future  by  way  of  tribute,  on  his 
promise  to  cease  ravaging  their  territory ;  and  that  ambassadors 
should  be  sent  from  Justinian  to  confirm  the  agreement.     But 
in  spite  of  this  arrangement,  Chosroes  proceeded  to  Apamea, 
and  demanded  a  large  sum  of  money  from  its  bishop,  Thomas  ; 
finally,  he  carried  off  all  the  sacred  vessels  and  offerings  and  left 
the  town.     It  was  here  that  the  miracle  of  the  precious  and 
life-giving  cross    took    place. ^     Chosroes  is  also  said  to  have 
attended  the  circus  games  in  the  same  place.     He  then  went 
on   to   Chalcis,  and  after  exacting  from    the  inhabitants    200 
pounds  of  gold,  retired  without  besieging  it.     He  next  visited 
Edessa,  from  which  he  exacted  the  same  amount,  but,  being 
alarmed    by  certain    divine   warnings,  left    this    city  also   un- 
besieged.     Edessa   is    the  city  which   is    connected  with   the 
story    of  Augarus^   and    the    miracle   performed    by   Christ. 

^  Or  Molatzes. 

2  Apainea  was  supposed  to  be  the  possessor  of  a  fragment  of  the  true  cross. 

^  Usually  known  as  Abgar(us),  probably  a  title.  The  Abgar  here  referred 
to  ruled  from  4  B.C.  to  a.d.  50,  with  an  interval  during  which  he  was 
deposed.  It  is  said  thit  he  wrote  a  letter  to  Christ  begging  Him  to  cure 
him  of  a  disease.  Christ  promised  to  send  one  of  His  disciples  after  His 
ascension,  and  Thaddeus  was  sent  by  Tho  nas,  by  whom  Abgar  was  cured^ 


72  PROCOPIUS  OF  CAESAREA 

Augarus  was  a  great  friend  of  Augustus,  at  whose  court  he 
remained  some  time,  and  only  succeeded  by  stratagem  in 
obtaining  permission  to  return  to  his  own  country.  Chosroes 
then  left  Edessa.  At  the  same  time  Justinian  wrote  to  his 
ambassadors,  expressing  himself  ready  to  confirm  the  treaty. 
Nevertheless,  Chosroes  exacted  ransom  from  Constantina, 
and,  going  on  to  Daras,  proceeded  to  besiege  it.  Its  com- 
mander, Martin,  prepared  to  defend  it,  and  Chosroes,  seeing  no 
hope  of  taking  it  by  siege,  retired  to  his  own  country  on  pay- 
ment of  looo  pounds  of  silver.  The  inhabitants  of  Antioch 
were  all  transferred  to  a  city  called  Antioch  of  Chosroes,  which 
he  had  built  in  Assyria,  a  day's  journey  from  Ctesiphon.  He 
treated  them  with  great  kindness  and  favour,  ordered  that  they 
should  be  exempt  from  all  jurisdiction  but  his  own,  constructed 
a  hippodrome,  and  provided  them  with  other  amusements. 

Belisarius,  who  had  been  recalled  from  Italy  to  take 
command,  set  out  against  Chosroes  at  the  beginning  of  spring. 
On  his  arrival  in  Mesopotamia,  he  armed  and  encouraged  the 
soldiers,  who  were  almost  without  equipment  and  dreaded  the 
name  of  the  Persians.  Chosroes,  on  the  invitation  of  the 
Lazians,  who  with  their  ruler  Gubazes  ^  had  joined  the  Persians, 
owing  to  the  extortions  and  jobbery  of  John,  Roman  com- 
mandant,- rapidly  advanced  against  Petra,  a  city  of  Colchis  on 
the  shore  of  the  Euxine.  As  long  as  John  was  in  command 
of  the  fortress,  the  siege  was  unsuccessful,  but  after  he  had 
been  killed  by  a  shot  in  the  neck,  it  surrendered.  The  inhabi- 
tants were  allowed  to  depart  unharmed,  subject  to  an  agreement. 
Only  the  large  amount  of  money  accumulated  by  John  through 
the  monopoly  was  seized  by  Chosroes.  In  the  meantime 
Belisarius,  after  an  abortive  attack  on  Nisibis,  laid  siege  to  the 
fortress  of  Sisauranum  and  compelled  it  to  surrender.  Its 
commander  Blischames^  and  the  most  distinguished  Persians 
were  made  prisoners  and  sent  to  Byzantium.  Arethas  also, 
who  had  been  sent  with  an  army  against  the  Assyrians,  ravaged 
their  country  ;  but  his  companions,  who  had  secured  large 
sums  of  money,  refused  to  return  to  Belisarius.  The  latter, 
whose  army  had  been  attacked  by  sickness,  was  in  ignorance 
of  what  Arethas  had  done  ;  Recithangus  and  Theoctistus  were 
eager  to  return  home  to  defend  Phoenicia,  which  was  being 

^  Or  Gunazes.  *  He  had  established  a  monopoly  of  corn  and  salt, 

^  There  are  several  variants  of  this  name, 


THEOPHANES   OF  BYZANTIUM  73 

ravaged  by  Alamundarus.  Belisarius  accordingly  withdrew 
his  forces  from  Persian  territory,  and  was  soon  afterwards 
summoned  by  Justinian  to  Constantinople. 

LXIV 

Read  the  History  of  Theophanes  of  Byzantium  ^  in  ten 
books.  The  first  book  begins  with  the  war  against  the 
Persians,  which  broke  out  after  the  treaty  concluded  between 
Justinian  and  Chosroes  was  renounced  by  Chosroes  himself 
and  Justin  the  successor  of  Justinian,  at  the  end  of  the  second 
year  of  his  reign.  The  history  begins  at  this  point,  and  goes 
down  to  the  tenth  year  of  the  war.  In  the  first  book  the  author 
also  mentions  that  he  has  written  another  work  on  the  history  of 
Justinian;  indeed,  it  is  evident  that  he  added  other  books  to  these 
ten.  In  this  book  he  narrates  how  the  treaty  was  annulled.  Justin 
sent  Comentiolus  to  demand  the  return  of  Suania  from 
Chosroes,  who  promised  to  give  it  back,  but  did  not  keep  his 
promise.  At  this  time  there  was  also  a  severe  earthquake 
throughout  Mesopotamia,  a  prelude  to  the  calamities  that  were 
to  come. 

The  Turks,  formerly  called  Massagetae,  and  by  the  Persians 
Kirmikhiones,  who  live  to  the  east  of  the  Tanais  (Don),  at 
this  time  sent  an  embassy  with  gifts  to  the  emperor  Justin, 
beseeching  him  not  to  receive  the  Avars.  Justin  accepted  the 
gifts,  received  the  ambassadors  kindly,  and  dismissed  them. 
When  the  Avars  subsequently  approached  Justin,  requesting 
permission  to  inhabit  Pannonia  and  desiring  to  conclude 
peace,  he  refused,  owing  to  the  agreement  he  had  made  with 
the  Turks. 

During  the  reign  of  Justinian,  a  certain  Persian,  a  visitor  to 

*  Nothing  is  known  of  the  author.  His  history  treated  of  the  events  of 
566-581,  containing  the  reigns  of  Justin  II  and  Tiberius  II.  It  would  seem, 
from  what  Photius  says,  that  he  gave  an  account  of  certain  happenings  in 
the  reign  of  Justinian,  and  also  continued  the  history  somewhat  later  in  a 
supplement  to  the  ten  books  into  the  reign  of  Maurice.  The  fragment  here 
given  is  important  for  the  account  of  the  introduction  of  silkworm 
breeding  into  Constantinople  during  the  reign  of  Justinian,  and  for  the 
first  mention  of  the  Turks  {see  Gibbon,  ch.  45  ;  J.  B.  Bury,  Later  Roman 
Empire;  G.  Rawlinson,  The  Seventh  Oriental  Monarchy).  This  Theo- 
phanes is  not  to  be  confused  with  Theophanes  the  Isaurian  (758-818),  whose 
extant  chronicle  begins  with  the  accession  of  Diocletian  (277)  and  goes 
down  to  811  (end  of  the  reign  of  Michael  I  Rhangabe). 


74  THEOPHANES  OF  BYZANTIUM 

Byzantium,  explained  to  the  emperor  the  art  of  rearing  silk- 
worms, hitherto  unknown  to  the  Romans.  This  Persian,  who 
had  come  from  the  land  of  the  Seres,^  concealed  the  eggs  of 
the  silkworms  in  a  hollow  cane  and  conveyed  them  to 
Byzantium.  At  the  beginning  of  spring,  the  eggs  were  placed 
upon  mulberry  leaves,  on  which  the  worms  fed  when  hatched, 
afterwards  turning  into  moths,  which  spun  the  silk.  When 
king  Justin  afterwards  showed  the  Turks  how  the  worms  were 
bred  and  how  silk  was  made,  he  greatly  surprised  them,  since 
at  that  time  they  had  possession  of  the  markets  and  harbours 
of  the  Seres,  formerly  held  by  the  Persians.  Ephthalanus, 
king  of  the  Ephthalites,  from  whom  the  tribe  derived  its 
name,  having  defeated  Perozes  and  the  Persians,  drove  them 
out  of  their  territory  and  took  possession  of  it,  being  them- 
selves shortly  afterwards  in  turn  defeated  and  dispossessed  by 
the  Turks.  Zemarchus,  an  ambassador  sent  by  Justin  to  the 
Turks,  entertained  them  at  a  magnificent  banquet  and  having 
been  received  with  every  kindness  returned  home.  Chosroes 
thereupon  marched  against  the  Aethiopians  (formerly  called 
Macrobii,^  and  at  that  time  Homerites),  who  were  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Romans ;  with  the  aid  of  Miranes,^  the  Persian 
general,  he  captured  Sanaturces,  king  of  the  Homerites,  sacked 
their  city  and  enslaved  the  inhabitants.  The  author  also 
relates  how  the  Armenians,  being  ill-treated  by  Surenas, 
especially  in  the  matter  of  religion,  entered  into  a  conspiracy 
with  Vardanes  (whose  brother  Manuel  had  been  put  to  death 
by  Surenas)  and  a  certain  Vardus,  slew  Surenas,  revolted  from 
the  Persians  and  went  over  to  the  Romans,  abandoning  the 
town  of  Dubios  where  they  lived  and  crossing  into  Roman 
territory.  This  was  the  chief  reason  why  the  Persians  broke 
the  treaty  with  the  Romans.  Immediately  afterwards  the 
Iberians  also  revolted  and  with  their  king,  Gurgenes,  deserted 
to  the  Romans.  At  that  time  Tiphilis  was  the  capital  of 
Iberia. 

Marcian,  cousin  of  the  emperor  Justin,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed commander  in  the  East,  was  sent  against  Chosroes  in 
the  eighth  year  of  Justin's  reign.  John,  the  general  of  Armenia, 
and  Miranes,  the  Persian  leader  (who  was  also  called 
Baramaanes),    collected   an    army   to    oppose    them.       The 

1  China.  *  The  "long-lived." 

'  Apparently  here  a  proper  name,  not  a  title. 


THEOPHYLACT   SIMOCATTA  75 

Armenians  were  joined  by  the  Colchians,  the  Abasgi,  and 
Saroes,  king  of  the  Alani ;  Miranes  by  the  Sabiri,  Daganes,  and 
the  tribe  of  the  Dilmaini.^  Marcian  defeated  Miranes  at  Nisibis , 
and  put  him  to  flight ;  i  200  Persians  were  killed  and  seventy 
taken  prisoners,  while  the  Roman  loss  was  only  seven. 
Marcian  also  laid  siege  to  Nisibis.  Chosroes,  when  he  heard 
of  this  got  together  40,000  cavalry  and  more  than  100,000 
infantry,  and  hastened  to  its  assistance  to  attack  the  Romans. 
In  the  meantime  Marcian  was  accused  to  the  emperor  of  aiming 
at  the  throne.  Justin,  persuaded  of  the  truth  of  the  charge, 
dismissed  him  from  the  command  and  appointed  Theodore, 
the  son  of  Justinian  surnamed  Tzirus,  in  his  stead.  This  led 
to  disturbances,  the  Romans  raised  the  siege,  and  Chosroes 
besieged  and  reduced  Daras. 

LXV 

Read  the  Histories  of  Theophylact,^  prefect  and  imperial 
secretary,  in  eight  books.  He  was  an  Egyptian  by  birth.  His 
style  is  not  without  grace,  but  owing  to  his  excessive  use  of 
figurative  expressions  and  allegorical  ideas  is  frigid  and  shows 
a  puerile  lack  of  taste;  further,  his  frequently  ill-timed  insertion 
of  moral  sentiments  betrays  a  fondness  for  excessive  and  super- 
fluous display.  In  other  respects  he  is  less  deserving  of  censure. 
The  history  begins  with  the  reign  of  Maurice,  and  goes  down 
to  the  accession  of  Phocas. 

In  the  first  book  he  gives  an  account  of  the  proclamation  of 
Maurice  by  the  emperor  Tiberius  as  his  successor  at  the  time 
when  John  was  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Tiberius  bestowed 
good  advice  upon  Maurice  through  the  mouth  of  John  the 
quaestor,  who  was  deputed  to  address  Maurice  and  the  people 
in  place  of  the  emperor.  Tiberius  betrothed  his  daughter  to 
Maurice  and  died  the  day  after  the  proclamation.     Just  before 

^  Probably  the  same  as  the  Dilimnitae. 

2  Theophylactus  Simocatta.  The  Histories  or  Oeciirnetiical  History  con- 
tains the  reign  of  the  emperor  Maurice  (582-604),  and  is  the  oldest  and  best 
authority  for  the  period.  The  complete  work  is  extant.  Simocatta  was 
also  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  certain  prulilmns  of  natural  history  and  their 
sohuion,  and  of  a  collection  of  rhetorical  exercises  in  the  form  of  letters  on 
various  subjects.  As  Photius  says,  his  style  is  extremely  far-fetched.  He 
has  been  described  as  a  representative  of  Byzantine  euphuism.  For  the 
history  j^(f  Gibbon,  ch  45,  46;  J.  B.  Bury,  Later  Roman  Empire ;  G, 
Rawlinson,  The  Seventh  Oriental  Monarchy. 


76  THEOPHYLACT   SIMOCATTA 

his  death,  he  saw  a  vision  and  heard  a  voice  saying,  "Thus 
saith  the  Trinity  to  thee,  O  Tiberius  ;  the  tyrannous  times  of 
impiety  shall  not  come  during  thy  reign."  These  words  were  a 
prediction  of  the  tragedy  of  the  impious  and  tyrannical  reign  of 
the  accursed  Phocas.  Maurice  made  peace  with  the  Avars, 
who  a  little  time  before  had  laid  siege  to  Sirmium,  and  agreed  to 
pay  the  barbarians  80,000  pieces  of  gold  yearly  in  consignments 
of  garments  and  money.  The  treaty  was  kept  for  two  years, 
but  was  broken  owing  to  the  greed  of  the  barbarians,  who  de- 
manded 20,000  more  pieces  of  gold.  This  led  to  the  rupture 
of  the  truce  :  Singidum,  Augusta,  and  Viminacium  were  taken 
by  the  barbarians  and  Anchialus  besieged.  Elpidius  and 
Comentiolus,  who  were  sent  as  ambassadors  from  Rome  to  the 
chagan  ^  of  the  Avars,  were  treated  with  insult  on  the  ground 
that  Comentiolus  had  spoken  too  freely  to  the  barbarian.  In 
the  following  year  Elpidius  was  again  sent  to  the  chagan  with 
an  offer  to  pay  the  additional  20,000  pieces  of  gold,  and  returned 
to  Byzantium  with  Targitius,  the  representative  of  the  Avars,  to 
ratify  the  agreement.  After  the  barbarians  had  plundered  much 
Roman  territory,  Targitius  was  banished  to  the  island  of  Chalcis 
for  six  months.  Comentiolus  was  afterwards  appointed  to 
command  against  the  Slavs,  and  greatly  distinguished  himself. 
The  chagan  again  violated  the  truce  on  account  of  the  affair  of 
Boukolobras  ^  the  magian,  and  many  Roman  towns  were 
devastated. 

The  battle  between  the  Romans  and  Persians  at  the  river 
Nymphius  and  the  marriage  of  Maurice  and  Constantina,  the 
daughter  of  Tiberius,  are  next  described.  Then  the  fire  that 
broke  out  in  the  forum  at  the  beginning  of  Maurice's  reign  ;  the 
execution  of  Paulinus  and  the  miracle  of  the  basin  of  Glyceria 
the  martyr ;  ^  how  the  patriarch  John,  when  the  emperor 
seemed  inclined  to  leniency,  himself  insisted  that  the  magician 
should  be  given  over  to  the  flames,  appealing  to  the  words  of 
the  apostle ;  how  Paulinus  and  his  son,  who  had  taken  part  in 
the  crime,  were  put  to  death."*  The  affair  of  the  fortresses  of 
Aphumon  and  Acbas.     The  battle  between  the  Romans  and 

^  The  name  given  to  the  princes  of  the  Avars  and  other  Turkish  tribes. 

^  Or  Bucolalira. 

^  The  holy  ointment  or  oil  which  trickled  from  the  bones  of  the  martyr, 
ceased  to  flow  when  the  basin  into  which  it  dripped  was  exchanged  for 
another  one  by  the  bishop  of  Heraclea. 

*  Paulinus  was  crucified  and  his  son's  head  cut  off. 


THEOPHYLACT  SIMOCATTA  77 

Persians,  and  how  John  was  defeated  by  the  cunning  of  the 
barbarians.  The  great  earthquake  which  took  place  at  the 
beginning  of  Maurice's  reign,  and  an  account  of  his  consulship. 
The  appointment  of  Philippicus,  the  husband  of  the  emperor's 
sister,  to  be  commander  in  the  East,  and  his  valiant  deeds.  The 
withdrawal  of  the  Romans  from  Media,  during  which  the  army 
suffered  greatly  from  want  of  w^ater.  How  Philippicus  handed 
over  the  district  of  Arzanene  to  his  army  to  plunder ;  the 
bravery  of  the  Romans.  The  devastation  of  the  country  round 
Martyropolis  by  the  Persians,  and  their  first  and  second  embassy 
to  the  Romans.     Such  is  the  contents  of  the  first  book. 

The  second  book  describes  mount  Izala ;  the  haughtiness  of 
Cardarigan  ^  the  Persian  commander ;  the  battle  between  the 
Romans  under  Philippicus  and  the  Persians  under  Cardarigan 
at  Arzamon  ;  how  Philippicus,  carrying  the  image  "  not  made 
with  hands"  marched  through  the  camp  and  consecrated  the 
army  ;  how  the  Romans  won  a  glorious  victory  ;  how  the  image 
was  sent  w^ith  all  due  reverence  to  Simeon,  bishop  of  Amida. 
The  territory  of  the  barbarians  plundered  by  the  Romans ; 
Cardarigan  flees  for  refuge  to  Daras,  but  the  inhabitants  refuse 
to  admit  him  for  having  been  defeated.  How  a  Roman  soldier 
belonging  to  the  Quarto-Parthian  legion  (as  those  were  called 
who  were  quartered  at  Beroea  in  Syria)  was  brought  into  camp 
dying  of  wounds.  The  expedition  of  the  Romans  against 
Azarnene,  and  the  desertion  of  its  commanders  Maruthas  and 
lobius  (Jovius)  to  Philippicus.  The  private  forces  raised  by 
Cardarigan  to  deceive  the  Romans.  The  marvellous  escape  of 
Heraclius  (father  of  Heraclius  who  was  afterwards  emperor), 
who  was  sent  by  Philippicus  on  a  reconnoitring  expedition. 
Zabertas  the  Persian  and  the  abandonment  of  the  siege  of 
Chlomaron  by  the  Romans.  The  headlong  and  unintelligible 
flight  of  Philippicus,  and  the  subsequent  confusion  in  the 
Roman  army.  Philippicus  attacked  by  disease  and  the  com- 
mand taken  ovei  by  Heraclius.  The  Roman  vice-commander 
attacks  the  Southern  Persians  and  at  the  beginning  of  spring 
the  Romans  invade  Persian  territory.  Comentiolus  sets  out 
against  the  Avars,  having  under  him  Martin  and  Castus,  who 
distinguished  themselves  against  the  enemy.  Castus  taken 
prisoner.  Ansimuth,  commander  of  the  infantry  in  Thrace, 
captured    by  the   Avars,  who  overrun    Thrace.     Comentiolus 

^  More  probably  a  Persian  title,  not  a  proper  name. 


78  THEOPHYLACT  SIMOCATTA 

hesitates  to  attack  the  enemy ;  speeches  for  and  against  at  a 
council  of  war.  A  false  alarm,  which  also  spread  to  the  ranks 
of  the  enemy,  frustrates  Comentiolus's  plan  of  attacking  the 
chagan.  How  a  soldier  named  Busas,  who  had  been  captured 
by  the  enemy  while  hunting  and  left  to  his  fate  by  his  country- 
men, taught  the  barbarians  to  make  siege-engines.  The  unsuc- 
cessful siege  of  Beroea  and  Diocletianopolis  by  the  chagan. 
The  emperor  Maurice  insulted  by  the  Byzantine  mob  because 
of  the  calamities  brought  upon  Europe  by  the  ravages  of 
the  barbarians.  John,  surnamed  Mystacon,  appointed  by 
Maurice  to  the  command  in  Thrace,  with  Drocton  as  second 
in  command,  who  when  Adrianople  was  besieged  by  the  Avars, 
attacked  them  and  saved  the  city.  Heraclius  attacks  a  Persian 
stronghold.  The  fortress  of  Beiudaes  taken  by  the  distinguished 
valour  of  Sapir.  The  return  of  Philippicus  to  the  imperial  city. 
The  third  book  begins  with  the  appointment  of  Priscus  to 
the  command  of  the  East  in  place  cf  Philippicus.  The  latter, 
jealous  of  Priscus,  persuades  the  emperor  to  announce  a 
reduction  of  the  rations  of  the  army.  Priscus,  when  he 
approached  the  camp,  did  not  get  off  his  horse,  as  was  the 
usual  custom,  in  order  to  salute  the  army.  This  slight  and 
the  reduction  of  their  rations  caused  a  mutiny  amongst  the 
soldiers.  Priscus  then  gave  the  image  "  made  without  hands  " 
to  Elifredas  ^  and  endeavoured  to  calm  the  soldiers  by  exhibit- 
ing it,  but  they  pelted  it  with  stones.  Priscus  takes  refuge  in 
Constantina,  and  Germanus  against  his  will  is  chosen 
commander  by  the  army.  While  these  disturbances  were 
taking  place,  the  Persians  greatly  harassed  the  Romans.  The 
emperor  accordingly  deprived  Priscus  of  his  command  and 
reappointed  Philippicus.  But  the  army  mutinied  against 
him  also.  Constantina  is  besieged  by  the  Persians  but 
relieved  by  Germanus.  At  the  battle  of  Martyro[^olis  the 
Romans  gain  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  Persians,  their  general 
Maruzas  and  3000  being  killed,  and  1000  taken  prisoners. 
The  army  is  reconciled  to  the  emperor  by  the  efforts  of 
Aristobulus.  Gallantry  of  the  Roman  prisoners  in  the  fortress 
of  Giligerdon.  Gregory,  patriarch  of  Antioch,  re-establishes 
friendly  relations  between  Philippicus  and  the  army.  Martyr- 
opolis  captured   by  the   Persians  owing   to   the   treachery  of 

^  Others  take  the  word  to  mean  the  image.       Elifredas  (or  Ilifredas)  = 
Wilfrid. 


THEOPHYLACT  SIMOCATTA  79 

Sittas.  Philippicus  superseded  in  the  command  against 
Persia  by  Comentiolus.  The  Getae  or  Slavs  ravage  the 
borders  of  Thrace.  Rome  takes  up  arms  against  the  Lom- 
bards. Libya  ^  defeats  the  Maurusii.^  Under  the  command 
of  Comentiolus,  the  Romans  engage  the  Persians  at  Sisar- 
banum  near  Nisibis ;  the  Romans,  fighting  with  great  bravery, 
are  victorious.  Heraclius  greatly  distinguishes  himself  in  the 
engagement.  The  Persian  commander  Phraates  is  slain  and 
much  booty  taken  from  the  enemy.  The  defeat  of  the  Turks 
by  Baram,^  who  secured  great  and  valuable  spoil  for  king 
Hormisdas.  Baram  then  takes  up  the  sword  against  Suania. 
The  Romans  under  the  command  of  Romanus  attack  Baram 
and  his  army,  and  inflict  a  severe  defeat  upon  him.  Thereupon, 
Hormisdas  insults  Baram  by  sending  him  a  woman's  garment ; 
Baram  returns  the  insult  by  addressing  a  letter  to  Hormisdas 
as  daughter,  not  son,  of  Chosroes.  The  Armenians,  prompted 
by  Symbatius,  kill  their  commander  John  and  prepare  to  go 
over  to  the  Persians.  Comentiolus,  being  sent  by  the  emperor, 
puts  down  the  mutiny  and  carries  off  Symbatius  to  Byzantium. 
He  is  condemned  to  be  thrown  to  the  wild  beasts,  but  his  life 
is  spared  by  the  clemency  of  the  emperor.  Hormisdas  sends 
Sarames  against  Baram.  Baram  defeats  Sarames,  causes  him 
to  be  trampled  upon  by  an  elephant,  and  openly  revolts  against 
the  king.  Baram,  before  he  meditated  revolt,  had  become 
so  powerful  that  he  was  considered  next  in  rank  to  the  king 
and  held  what  the  Romans  call  the  office  of  curopalates.^  The 
narrative  returns  to  the  events  of  earlier  times,  and  a  brief 
account  is  given  of  what  took  place  in  the  reigns  of  Justin  and 
Tiberius,  of  the  cruelty  of  Hormisdas  the  Persian  king,  and  the 
origin  of  the  family.     Such  is  the  contents  of  the  third  book. 

The  fourth  book  relates  the  spread  of  civil  war  amongst 
the  Persians,  their  victories  and  successes  during  the  rule  of 
Baram.  The  murder  of  Pherochanes.  Zadespras  ^  goes  over 
to  the  enemy.  Hormisdas,  deprived  of  the  throne  by  Bindoes, 
is  allowed  to  plead  his  cause  in  chains.  After  Bindoes  has 
replied,  the  son  of  Hormisdas  and  the  queen  are  put  to  death 
and  cut  to  pieces  before  his  eyes  ;  he  himself  is  blinded  and 
subsequently  beaten  to  death  by  order  of  his  son  Chosroes, 
who  was  chosen  to  succeed  him.    The  vigorous  rule  of  Baram. 

^  The  province  of  Africa.         ^  The  Moors.         ^  Bahram  or  Varahran. 
*  Major-domo  of  the  imperial  palace.  °  Also  Zadesprates. 


8o  THEOPHYLACT  SIMOCATTA 

The  flight  of  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  to  Circensium,  whence 
he  sends  a  letter  and  an  embassy  to  the  emperor  Maurice. 
How  Baram  schemes  to  get  himself  made  king  by  the  Persians, 
but,  unable  to  persuade  them  to  elect  him,  proclaims  himself. 
The  emperor  removes  Chosroes  to  Hierapolis,  accompanied 
by  a  suite  worthy  of  his  rank.  What  took  place  between 
Baram  and  Chosroes,  before  the  latter  made  an  alliance  with 
the  Romans.  The  ambassadors  sent  by  Baram  to  Maurice 
are  dismissed,  while  those  of  Chosroes  are  welcomed.  The 
emperor  sends  the  bishop  of  Melitene  and  Gregory,  bishop  of 
Antioch,  to  Chosroes.  The  treacherous  murder  of  Baram  by 
Zamerdes,  Zoanambes,  and  others.  Bindoes,  who  had  taken 
part  in  the  plot  against  Baram,  flees  to  Persia.  Martyropolis 
restored  by  Chosroes  to  the  Romans.  The  traitor  Sittas 
burnt  to  death  The  festal  oration  delivered  by  Dometian, 
bishop  of  Melitene,  on  the  occasion  of  the  recovery  of  the 
city.     Such  is  the  contents  of  the  fourth  book. 

The  fifth  book  relates  how  Chosroes,  king  of  the  Persians, 
being  dejected  and  sick  at  heart,  sends  a  message  to  the  shrine 
of  Sergius  the  martyr,^  the  object  of  devotion  also  of  the  rest 
of  the  barbarians,  entreating  him  to  show  him  a  way  out  of 
misfortune,  and  promising  him  the  gift  of  a  golden  cross  set 
with  gems.  Zadespras  treacherously  killed  by  Rosas  at  the 
instigation  of  Blischames,  and  other  events  favourable  to 
Chosroes.  Chosroes  gives  a  bond  for  money  lent  by  the 
emperor  Maurice,  and  sends  an  embassy  requesting  that 
Comentiolus  be  dismissed  from  the  command  ;  the  appointment 
of  Narses  in  his  stead,  and  the  alliance  with  the  Romans  against 
the  usurper  Baram.  The  royal  gifts  sent  by  Maurice  to  Chosroes. 
The  keys  of  Daras  handed  over  to  the  emperor  by  the  Persian 
ambassador  Dol(a)bzas.  The  speech  of  Dometian,  bishop  of 
Melitene,  exhorting  the  Romans  to  make  an  alliance  with 
Chosroes  against  Baram.  The  successes  of  Chosroes  before 
the  collision  between  the  Romans  and  Persians.  How  Chosroes 
recovers  his  throne  and  the  royal  treasures  with  the  aid  of 
Bindoes.  Junction  of  the  Roman  forces  in  Armenia  and  the 
East,  battle  with  Baram,  and  brilliant  victory  of  the  Romans. 
In  this  battle,  in  which  Narses  was  in  command,  some  Turks 

^  A  celebrated  martyr  of  the  Eastern  Church  who  suffered  at  Sergiopolis 
or  Rasaphe  in  Syria  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  He  and 
another  martyr  named  Bacchus  were  considered  the  patron  saints  of  Syria. 


THEOPHYLACT   SIMOCATTA  8i 

were  taken  prisoners  who  bore  on  their  foreheads  the  sign  of 
the  cross,  which  they  declared  they  had  formerly  placed  there 
to  deliver  them  from  the  ravages  of  a  pestilence.  Golinduch 
the  Persian  and  his  severely  ascetic  life.  The  return  of 
Chosroes  to  his  own  dominions.  The  gifts  sent  by  Chosroes 
to  Sergius  the  martyr.  His  petition  to  the  saint  to  bestow 
pregnancy  upon  his  wife  Sirem,  who  was  a  Christian.  His 
petition  proving  successful,  he  sends  valuable  gifts  to  the  shrine 
of  the  martyr.  Chosroes  punishes  all  those  who  took  part  in 
the  revolt  and  puts  Bindoes  to  death,  as  having  lifted  his  hands 
against  the  king.  Chosroes  predicts  that  the  Romans  will 
revolt  against  their  tyrannical  masters.  The  embassy  of  Probus, 
bishop  of  Chalcedon,  the  portrait  of  the  Mother  of  God,  and 
what  took  place  at  the  embassy.  The  emperor's  visit  to 
Anchialus  in  Europe,  where  he  is  met  by  a  portent  in  the  form 
of  a  sow.  His  return  to  the  palace  and  the  arrival  of  the 
embassy  of  Zalabzas.     Such  is  the  contents  of  the  fifth  book. 

The  sixth  book  relates  how  Maurice,  setting  out  from  the 
city,  is  overtaken  by  a  violent  storm  at  sea.  During  his  stay 
at  Heraclea,  a  monstrous  prodigy  is  born,  an  infant  without 
hands,  eyes,  eyebrows,  or  eyelids,  and  a  fish's  tail  attached 
to  his  thigh.  The  destruction  of  the  monster.  Three  Slavs 
carrying  citharae,  said  to  have  been  sent  from  the  borders 
of  ocean  to  the  chagan,  brought  before  Maurice.  Bossus  and 
Bettus  sent  as  ambassadors  to  Maurice  by  Theodorich,  king 
of  the  Franks,  proposing  an  alliance  in  return  for  a  sum  of 
money.  The  proposal  rejected.  How  a  large  stag,  one  of  a 
herd,  being  wounded  flees  to  a  wood  and  is  pursued  by  one 
of  the  bodyguard  and  one  of  the  Gepidae.  How  the  former 
is  treacherously  slain  for  the  sake  of  his  golden  ornaments  by 
the  latter,  who  is  convicted  of  the  crime  a  long  time  afterwards 
and  burnt  to  death.  The  expedition  of  the  Avars  against  the 
Romans,  the  siege  of  Singidum,^  the  appointment  of  Priscus 
as  commander  and  general  of  the  forces  in  Europe.  The 
church  of  Alexander  the  martyr  at  Drizipera  set  on  fire  by  the 
chagan.  The  Romans  shut  up  in  Tzurulum  by  the  chagan. 
Maurice  cleverly  deceives  the  chagan  and  forces  him  to  raise 
the  siege.  The  embassy  of  the  Avars  to  the  Romans,  the 
defeat  of  Ardagast,^  the  affair  of  Tatimer.^     The  bravery  of 

^  Singidon  or  Singidunum,  modern  Belgrade. 

^  Leader  of  the  Slovenes,  who  were  under  the  sway  of  the  Avais. 

^  One  of  Priscus's  generals. 

VOL.  I.  F 


82  THEOPHYLACT  SIMOCATTA 

the  tribune  Alexander  and  the  Romans,  the  massacre  of  the 
Slovenes,  and  their  counter-attack  on  the  Romans.  Concerning 
the  monsters  born  in  the  queen-city,  a  child  with  four  feet, 
another  with  two  heads.  Priscus  deprived  of  his  command  for 
sharing  with  the  Persians  the  booty  taken  from  the  Slovenes, 
and  succeeded  in  the  European  command  by  Peter.  An  account 
of  the  learning  and  shrewdness  of  Theodore/  who  was  sent  as 
an  ambassador  to  the  chagan  by  Priscus.  Such  is  the  contents 
of  the  sixth  book. 

The  seventh  book  relates  the  disturbances  amongst  the 
soldiers  and  their  bravery  against  the  Slavs  (or  Getae,  as  they 
were  formerly  called).  What  happened  to  Peter  and  the 
citize  iS  at  the  Thracian  city  of  Asemus.  How  Pirigastus,  the 
Slovene  commander,  was  slain.  The  bravery  of  the  Romans, 
although  suffering  greatly  from  lack  of  w^ater.  How  Peter, 
being  defeated  by  the  Slovenes,  is  superseded  by  Priscus.  The 
death  of  John  the  Faster,  patriarch  of  Constantinople.^  Con- 
cerning the  money  lent  him  by  Maurice,  for  which  he  gave  a 
bond.  The  great  respect  shown  by  the  truly  pious  emperor 
to  the  ragged  vestments  left  by  the  patriarch.  The  expedition 
of  the  Maurusii  against  Carthage,  and  how  it  was  stopped  by 
the  bravery  of  Gennadius.  Of  the  comet  that  was  seen  for  several 
days.  The  Turkish  civil  war.  An  account  of  their  constitution, 
manners,  and  customs.  How  the  chagan  of  the  Turks  slew 
the  ethnarch^  of  the  Ephthalites,  enslaved  the  people,  and 
also  slew  300,000  Ogors  and  Colchians.  How  he  also  slew 
Turum,  who  rebelled  against  him,  and  sent  a  letter  to  the 
emperor  Maurice  announcing  his  victory.  He  also  enslaved 
the  Avars.  The  inhabitants  of  Taugast  and  the  tribe  of  Mucri, 
with  whom  the  defeated  Avars  took  refuge.  Concerning  the 
Guars  and  Hunni,  a  great  number  of  w^hom  have  inhabited 
Europe  since  the  reign  of  Justinian,  and  call  themselves  Avars. 
The  Turkish  empire  free  from  earthquakes  and  pestilence. 
The  mountain  of  gold  and  the  city  of  Taugast.  Silkworms, 
the  mode  of  rearing  them,  and  the  extensive  manufacture  of 
silk  at  Chubda.     The  white  Indians.     The  chagan's  conversa- 

^  He  was  a  physician. 

^  582-595.  Of  humble  origin,  he  was  distinguisheJ  for  his  piety  and 
asceticism,  but  was  a  man  of  cruel  disposition.  His  assumption  of  the  title 
of  "ecumenical  patriarch"  led  to  trouble  with  Pelagius  H  and  Gregory  I, 
bishops  of  Rome.     Four  extant  works  are  attributed  to  him. 

^  Name  given  to  the  princes  or  chiefs  of  the  Slovenes  and  other  tribes. 


THEOPHYLx\CT  SIMOCATTA     '  83 

tion  with  Priscus  concerning  the  enslavement  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Singidum  ;  Priscus's  answer,  and  how  he  saved  the  city.  The 
ravages  of  the  barbarians  in  Dahiiatia,  and  the  great  success 
of  Gunduis/  who  had  been  sent  against  them  by  Priscus.  In 
the  nineteenth  year  of  Maurice's  reign  a  certain  monk  prophesies 
his  death  and  that  of  his  children.  Running  with  a  drawn 
sword  from  the  forum  to  the  vestibule  of  the  palace,  he  proclaims 
that  Maurice  and  his  children  will  be  slain  with  the  sword.  A 
certain  Herodian  also  foretells  what  was  about  to  happen. 
The  famine  in  the  Roman  camp.  How  the  chagan,  with 
remarkable  humanity,  granted  a  suspension  of  hostilities  for 
five  days,  during  which  the  Romans  were  to  be  supplied  by 
the  barbarians  with  provisions  without  fear  of  molestation. 
How  Priscus  sent  him  gifts  of  spices  in  return.  The  chagan's 
advance  into  Moesia.  Battle  with  Comentiolus  in  Moesia,  in 
which,  by  the  treachery  of  Comentiolus,  the  Roman  army  is 
cut  to  pieces  by  the  barbarians.  Flight  of  Comentiolus  to 
Drizipera,  but  the  inhabitants  refuse  to  admit  him  as  being  a 
runaway,  and  he  goes  on  to  the  long  walls. ^  The  barbarians 
in  close  pursuit  first  capture  Drizipera,  burn  the  church  of 
Alexander  the  martyr,  drag  his  body  from  the  tomb  and 
insult  it.  But  divine  justice  overtakes  his  insulters ;  the  seven 
sons  of  the  chagan  die  of  bubo  in  one  day.  During  these  disturb- 
ances Comentiolus  resides  in  Constantinople  ;  the  barbarians  in 
the  meantime  approach  the  long  walls.  The  inhabitants  of 
Byzantium  are  so  alarmed  that  they  contemplate  abandoning 
Europe  and  crossing  over  into  Asia.  However,  the  king  sends 
Harmaton  as  ambassador  to  the  chagan,  who  by  splendid  gifts, 
to  which  are  added  20,000  pieces  of  gold,  is  with  difficulty 
persuaded  to  make  peace,  declaring,  "God  judge  between  the 
chagan  and  Maurice,  between  the  Avars  and  the  Romans." 
The  monsters  in  human  form  seen  in  the  waters  of  the  Nile, 
and  the  various  opinions  as  to  the  rising  of  the  river.  Theophy- 
lact  agrees  with  Agatharchides  of  Cnidus.^  He  says  that  in  the 
countries  of  Aethiopia  there  is  a  heavy  and  continuous  down- 
pour of  rain  every  year  from  the  summer  solstice  to  the  autumnal 

^  Also  Guduis  or  Gudwin.  ^  Of  Byzantium. 

^  Geographer  and  historian,  grammarian  and  philosopher,  flourished 
during  tlie  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philometor  (181-146),  but  was  still  living  after 
131.  He  wrote  on  the  history  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the  geography  of 
the  Red  Sea.  Fragments  of  the  history  are  preserved,  and  Photius  gives 
excerpts  from  the  geography  in  Cod.  CCL. 


84  THEOPHYLACT   SIMOCATTA 

equinox ;  hence  it  is  natural  that  the  river  should  contract  in 
winter,  since  its  waters  are  only  fed  from  its  own  sources, 
whereas  in  summer  it  is  greatly  increased  by  the  rains  from 
Aethiopia.     wSuch  is  the  contents  of  the  seventh  book. 

The  eighth  book  relates  how  Chosroes,  in  consequence  of 
the  raids  of  the  Saracens  who  were  subject  to  the  Romans, 
desires  to  break  the  treaty,  but  is  persuaded  by  George,  who 
was  sent  as  ambassador,  not  to  do  so.  George,  however, 
incurs  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor,  since  Chosroes  declares 
that  he  had  kept  the  treaty  unbroken  not  for  the  sake  of  the 
emperor,  but  for  the  sake  of  George.  The  charge  of  treachery 
against  Comentiolus,  his  reconciliation  with  the  soldiers  and 
reappointment  as  commander  by  the  emperor.  Battle  between 
the  Avars  and  the  Romans  commanded  by  Priscus  and 
Comentiolus  The  latter  excuses  himself  from  taking  part  in 
the  battle,^  but  the  army,  under  the  leadership  of  Priscus, 
behaves  with  the  greatest  gallantry  and  slays  4000  of  the 
enemy.  In  a  second  engagement,  the  Avars  lose  9000,  in  a 
third  15,000  men.  In  a  fourth  battle  the  Romans  gain  a 
brilliant  victory,  in  which  30,000  Avars  and  Gepidae  are  slain. 
In  a  fifth  and  last  battle,  the  Avars  are  utterly  defeated,  3000 
of  them  being  taken  prisoners,  together  with  4000  other 
barbarians,  2200  of  other  nations,  and  8000  Slavs.  The 
chagan  cunningly  persuades  the  emperor  to  restore  the  captive 
Avars.  The  dejection  of  Comentiolus,  by  whose  carelessness  a 
number  of  the  soldiers,  on  the  way  to  Philippopolis,  are  frozen 
to  death.  Peter  again  appointed  to  the  command  in  Europe 
by  the  emperor.  The  marriage  of  Theodosius  the  son  of 
Maurice  to  the  daughter  of  Germanus.  The  famine  in  the 
queen-city,  the  disorderly  conduct  of  the  demes^  while  the 
emperor  was  attending  divine  service,  his  clemency,  the  banish- 
ment and  return  of  the  soldiers  on  the  same  day.  Peter  enjoined 
by  Maurice  at  all  costs  to  keep  the  Thracian  forces  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Ister  (Danube)  ;  the  divine  voice  heard  by 
Peter.  Mutiny  in  the  Roman  army  and  a  rising  against 
Maurice,  Phocas  being  proclaimed  exarch  (captain)  by  the 
soldiery.  Flight  of  Peter ;  the  emperor  informed  of  the 
mutiny.     The  demes,  urged  on  by  the  demarchs  Sergius  and 

^  He  purposely  mutilated  his  hand. 

^  Deme    [drjixos,    people)  was    the  name  by  which  the  circus   factions 
were  known,  their  leaders  being  called  demarchs. 


THEOPHYLACT  SIMOCATTA  85 

Cosmas,  for  the  first  time  meddle  in  state  affairs,  1500  Greens 
and  900  Blues.  Maurice  bestows  largess  on  the  demesmen, 
and  sends  an  embassy  to  the  mutinous  soldiers,  who  refuse  to 
receive  it.  Byzantium  put  in  a  state  of  defence.  The  army 
sends  a  message  to  Theodosius,  demanding  that  either  he 
or  his  father-in-law  should  be  proclaimed  emperor.  When 
Maurice  hears  of  this,  suspecting  that  Germanus  is  the  cause 
of  the  revolt,  he  threatens  his  life.  Germanus,  being  warned 
by  his  son-in-law  Theodosius,  takes  refuge  in  the  church  of  the 
Mother  of  God  that  had  been  built  by  Cyrus.^  Stephen  the 
eunuch,  the  tutor  of  the  king's  sons,  sent  to  Germanus  to  induce 
him  to  leave  the  church,  but  his  mission  is  unsuccessful. 
Theodosius  flogged  by  his  father  for  informing  his  father-in-law. 
Germanus  removes  from  the  church  of  the  Mother  of  God  to 
St.  Sophia,  and  being  again  summoned  to  come  out,  is  pre 
vented  from  leaving  the  church  by  Andrew,  a  constant  attend- 
ant at  the  services.  Disturbances  in  the  city  and  burning  of 
the  house  of  Constantine  Lardys  the  patrician.  Perplexity  and 
flight  of  Maurice,  which  is  hindered  by  a  storm.  Mission  of 
Theodosius  to  Chosroes  ;  his  departure  from  Nicaea  on  being 
'  shown  the  ring,  which  his  father  had  arranged  should  be  the 
sign  and  signal  for  his  return.  The  inhabitants  of  the  city, 
amongst  them  a  certain  Hebdomites,  go  over  to  the  usurper. 
Vain  attempt  of  Germanus  to  get  himself  declared  emperor, 
the  Greens  refusing  to  support  him  on  the  ground  that  he 
favoured  the  Blues.  Phocas  proclaimed  emperor  in  the  church 
of  St.  John  in  Hebdomon,^  while  Cyriacus  was  patriarch  of 
the  royal  city.  Entry  of  Phocas  into  the  palace  and  proclama- 
tion of  his  wife  Leontia  as  Augusta.  Dispute  amongst  the 
demarchs  about  their  places  during  the  procession.  Cosmas, 
demarch  of  the  Blues,  assaulted  by  Alexander,  who  is  in  his 
turn  insulted.  A  reminder  that  Maurice  was  not  yet  dead  de- 
cides the  usurper  to  murder  the  emperor.  Maurice's  children 
killed  before  his  eyes  in  the  harbour  of  Eutropius.  Philo- 
sophical resignation  of  Maurice,  and  his  murder  by  Lilius. 
Will  of  Maurice  found  during  the  reign  of  Heraclius.  The 
bodies  of  the  king  and  his  son  thrown  into  the  sea.     Funeral 

1  Prefect  of  the  city,  who  built  the  church  by  order  of  Theodosius  II, 
emperor  408-450. 

'  The  Field  of  Mars  near  Constantinople.  Some  authorities  place  it  at 
Blachernae,  others  on  the  Propontis  (Sea  of  Marmora). 


86  THEOPHYLACT  SIMOCATTA 

oration  on  Maurice.  The  soldiers  punished  by  the  judgment 
of  divine  providence  for  their  crime  against  Maurice,  not  one 
of  all  those  who  had  taken  part  in  the  rising  being  left  alive 
soon  afterwards  ;  they  perished  to  a  man,  some  by  disease, 
others  by  fire  from  heaven,  others  by  the  sword.  When 
Heraclius  resolved  to  declare  war  against  Razates,  king  of  the 
Persians,  and  mustered  his  army,  he  found  only  two  left  of 
those  who  had  supported  the  usurper.  After  that  the  Romans 
began  to  show  themselves  superior  to  the  Persians,  whereas 
as  long  as  any  of  the  mutineers  survived,  victory  always  re- 
mained with  the  enemy.  Theodosius,  Maurice's  son,  slain 
by  Alexander  at  the  command  of  Phocas,  together  with  Peter, 
Comentiolus,  and  Constantine  Lardys.  A  false  report  that 
Theodosius  was  not  put  to  death.  How  the  statues  at  Alex- 
andria, in  the  district  called  Tychaeum,  moving  from 
their  places  of  their  own  accord,  announced  what  had  hap- 
pened in  Byzantium  to  a  copyist,  as  he  was  returning  home 
after  supper.  Maurice  said  to  have  remitted  the  third 
part  of  the  tribute  to  his  subjects  and  to  have  given  thirty 
talents  to  the  Byzantines  for  the  repair  of  the  aqueducts. 
His  generous  treatment  of  scholars  and  students.  The 
strange  things  that  happened  in  regard  to  the  bloody  flux  of 
Euphemia  the  martyr ;  how  Maurice,  who  tested  the  miracle 
since  he  was  at  first  incredulous,  found  it  confirmed.  How 
Phocas  shut  up  the  wife  of  Maurice  with  her  daughter  in 
a  private  house.  His  unsuccessful  embassy  to  Chosroes,  king 
of  Persia  ;  the  treaty  with  Persia  broken  by  Chosroes,  who 
pretended  that  it  was  his  solemn  duty  to  avenge  Maurice.  So 
Lilius,  who  was  sent  as  ambassador,  returned  without  having 
succeeded  in  his  mission.  Murder  of  Alexander,  who  had 
conspired  with  Phocas  against  Maurice,  on  suspicion  of  having 
saved  the  life  of  Theodosius,  whereas  he  had  really  murdered 
him.     This  ends  the  history. 

LXVI 

Read  the  Historical  Epitome  of  Nicephorus  patriarch  of 
Constantinople.^     It   begins   with  the  death  of   Maurice  and 

^  806-815.  He  began  his  career  as  a  civilian,  and  althougn  a  layman, 
was  chosen  patriarch.  His  conciliatory  disposition  brought  upon  him  the 
hatred  of  the  extremists.  During  the  campaign  of  Leo  against  image- 
worship,  he  energetically  defended  the  orthodox   view.     He  was  finally 


SERGIUS   CONFESSOR  87 

goes  down  to  the  marriage  of  Leo  and  Irene.  His  style  is 
clear  and  free  from  redundancies,  his  choice  of  words  excel- 
lent; and  the  composition  neither  too  loose  nor  too  com- 
pressed, but  such  as  the  real  and  perfect  orator  would  employ. 
He  avoids  innovations,  but  at  the  same  time  is  too  fond  of 
employing  what  is  old-fashioned  and  affectedly  elaborate.  His 
language  is  pleasant  and  not  without  charm.  Speaking 
generally,  he  throws  into  the  shade  all  historians  who  have 
preceded  him ;  his  only  fault  is  excessive  brevity,  which  may 
appear  to  some  to  prevent  his  work  being  completely 
agreeable. 

LXVII 

Read  the  History  of  Sergius  the  Confessor.^  It  begins  with 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Michael,^  and  then  goes  back  to  the 
lawless  and  abominable  acts  of  Copronymus.^  Political  and 
ecclesiastical  events  down  to  the  eighth  year  of  Michael's 
reign  are  narrated  in  order  ;  his  military  achievements  and  his 
views  on  religious  matters  are  set  forth  in  detail. 

The  style  is  particularly  clear  and  simple,  both  as  regards 
the  meaning  of  words,  composition,  and  the  general  arrange- 
ment, which  gives  the  impression  of  spontaneity.  The 
language,  full  of  natural  charm,  is  not  characterised  by  studied 
changes  of  -form  due  to  excessive  care.  In  accordance  with 
his  design,  he  has  preserved  the  style  best  adapted  for 
ecclesiastical  history. 

LXVIII 

Read  the  Historical  Epitome  of  Cephalion  *     It  begins  with 

deposed  and  banished.  In  addition  to  the  historical  epitome  of  events 
from  602-769  here  referred  to,  he  was  the  author  of  tables  of  Universal 
History  from  Adam  to  the  death  of  Nicephorus  (829),  much  used  by  the 
Byzantines,  and  of  three  Antiri-helici,  written  against  the  iconoclasts. 

^  The  work  is  lost.  The  name  Confessor  and  the  epithets  applied  to 
the  acts  of  Copronymus  show  that  Sergius  was  an  opponent  of  the  icono- 
clasts and  a  champion  of  orthodoxy.  He  is  perhaps  the  Sergius  exiled  by 
Leo  in. 

2  Michael  II  Balbus,  the  Stammerer  (820-829). 

3  "Man  of  Dung,"  Constantine  V  (741-775).  An  inflexible  opponent 
of  image-worship,  he  was  violently  assailed  by  the  orthodox,  but  was  in 
reality  a  most  capable  ruler. 

*  Flourished  in  the  reign  of  Hadrian  (i  17-138).  Some  fragments  have 
been  preserved  in  Eusebius  and  some  of  the  Byzantine  chroniclers  (e.g. 
John  Malalas,  Syncellus). 


88  HESYCHIUS  ILLUSTRIUS 

the  reign  of  Ninus  and  Semiramis  ^  and  goes  down  to  the  times 
of  Alexander  the  Great.  The  entire  history  comprises  nine 
books,  called  after  the  nine  Muses — Clio,  Thalia,  Polyhymnia, 
Melpomene,  Terpsichore,  Euterpe,  Calliope,  Erato,  and 
Urania,  in  which  the  acts  of  Alexander,  king  of  Macedon,  are 
also  related. 

He  writes  in  the  Ionic  dialect.  The  excessive  brevity  with 
which  he  describes  the  bare  facts  of  history  leaves  no  room  for 
admiration  or  imitation.  He  says  nothing  about  his  race  or 
family,  but  passes  them  over  in  silence,  like  Homer,  as  he 
himself  says.  However,  it  appears  that  he  wrote  the  work 
during  his  exile  in  Sicily.  While  saying  nothing  about  his 
race  or  family,  as  he  ought  to  have  done,  he  mentions  his 
exile,  an  indication  of  meanness  of  spirit.  His  boast  of  the 
number  of  authors  consulted  by  him  in  compiling  his  history 
shows  a  mind  incapable  of  shaking  off  a  petty  and  childish 
love  of  display.  He  says  that  the  first  book  of  his  history  was 
compiled  from  570  books,  of  31  of  which  he  gives  the  authors' 
names;  the  second  book  from  208,  with  25  authors'  names; 
the  third  from  600,  with  26  authors'  names;  the  fourth  from 
850,  with  36  authors'  names;  the  fifth  from  200,  with  26 
authors'  names,  and  so  on.     Such  is  the  History  of  Cephalion. 

LXIX 

Read  the  History  of  Hesychius  ^  Illustri(u)s,  son  ot 
Hesychius  and  Sophia,  a  Milesian  by  birth.  It  is  a  sort  of 
synopsis  of  the  history  of  the  world,  as  is  shown  by  the  title — 
History  of  Roman  and  General  History.  It  begins  with  the 
reign  of  Belus,  king  of  Assyria,  and  goes  down  to  the  death 
of  Anastasius,  emperor  of  Rome. 

His  style  is  concise  and  elegant,  the  language  perspicuous 
if  florid,  and  the  composition  elaborate  in  proportion.  He  is 
especially  careful  in  the  choice  of  words.  His  mode  of 
expression  is  distinct  and  emphatic,  and  he  charms  ^  the  reader 

■•^  The  mythical  founder  and  foundress  of  Nineveh. 

^  Lived  during  the  reign  of  Justinian.  He  was  the  author  of  a  History 
of  the  World  down  to  the  death  of  Anastasius  (518),  of  which  part  relating 
to  the  early  history  of  Constantinople  is  preserved  ;  of  works  on  Justin  and 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Justinian  ;  of  an  Onoinatologos  (list)  of  famous 
literary  persons,  a  general  history  of  ancient  literature.  Illusirius  is  a 
designation  of  rank. 

^  The  reading  is  uncertain  here. 


DIODORUS  SICULUS  89 

by  his  figures  of  speech,  which,  however,  do  not  prevent  events 
from  being  described  as  clearly  as  if  he  had  made  no  use  of 
figures,  or  even  more  clearly.  He  also  declares  his  intention 
of  adhering  strictly  to  truth. 

The  work  is  divided  into  six  parts.  The  first  part  contains 
the  narrative  of  events  preceding  the  Trojan  war ;  the  second, 
events  from  the  capture  of  Troy  to  the  foundation  of  Rome ; 
the  third,  events  from  the  foundation  of  Rome  to  the  time 
when  the  appointment  of  consuls  put  an  end  to  the  monarchy, 
in  the  68th  Olympiad  ;  ^  the  fourth,  events  from  the  government 
of  the  consuls  to  the  182nd  Olympiad,  when  Julius  Caesar 
became  sole  emperor  and  the  consuls  were  abolished;^  the 
fifth,  events  that  took  place  under  the  rule  of  Julius  Caesar 
down  to  the  time  when  the  glory  of  Byzantium  reached  its 
height,  at  the  beginning  of  the  277th  Olympiad.^  The  sixth 
begins  with  the  time  when  Byzantium  to  its  good  fortune  had 
Constantine  for  its  emperor,  and  goes  down  to  the  death  of 
Anastasius,  whom  the  author  (I  do  not  know  why)  praises  as 
superior  to  many  of  his  predecessors  in  clemency  and  mildness. 
His  death  took  place  in  the  eleventh  indiction,^  when  Magnus 
was  sole  consul.  The  period  of  time  embraced  by  the  history 
is  1 190  years. 

Also  read  another  book  by  the  same  author,  containing  the 
events  of  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Justin.  It  relates  how,  on 
the  death  of  Anastasius,  Justin  was  chosen  to  succeed  him, 
how  Justin  was  succeeded  by  Justinian.  Various  events  that 
occurred  during  the  early  years  of  the  reign  of  the  latter.  The 
author  was  prevented  from  writing  more  by  the  death  of  his 
son  John,  which  so  deeply  affected  him  that  he  was  unable  to 
devote  himself  to  study  or  literary  work. 

LXX 

Read  the  forty  books  of   Diodorus    Siculus,^  containing  a 

1    508-505  B.C.  _  ^    52-49  B.C. 

'  Byzantium  was  made  the  capital  of  the  empire  by  Constantine,  and  its 
name  changed  to  Constantinopolis  in  a.d,  330. 

*  A  period  of  15  years,  instituted  by  Constantine  the  Great  in  313  for 
fiscal  purposes,  afterwards  adopted  as  a  convenient  method  of  chronology 
generally.  To  find  the  year  of  the  indiction,  add  3  to  any  date  of  our 
era,  divide  by  15,  and  the  remainder  is  the  indiction,  or  if  there  is  no 
remainder,  the  indiction  is  15. 

'  Of  Agyrium    in    Sicily,    flourished   in   the   time   of    Augustus,    and 


90  DIO   CASSIUS 

kind  of  history  of  the  world.  He  is  fuller  than  Cephalion  and 
Hesychius  Illustrius  in  his  description  of  the  same  periods. 
His  style  is  clear,  unadorned,  and  admirably  adapted  for 
history.  He  neither  excessively  affects  atticisms  or  antiquated 
modes  of  expression,  nor  on  the  other  hand  does  he  altogether 
descend  to  the  level  of  everyday  language.  He  rather  takes 
pleasure  in  a  style  midway  between  the  two,  avoiding  figures 
of  speech  and  the  like  affectations,  and  only  using  the  language 
of  fable,  after  the  manner  of  poets,  where  he  relates  the 
legends  of  gods  and  heroes. 

He  begins  his  history  with  the  mythical  ages  of  the  Greeks 
and  barbarians,  and  goes  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  war 
between  the  Romans  and  Celts,  at  the  time  when  Gaius  Julius 
Caesar  (called  "  divine  "  by  the  Romans  on  account  of  his 
mighty  deeds)  subdued  most,  and  those  the  most  warlike,  of 
the  Celtic  nations.  He  spent  thirty  years  over  the  history,  as 
he  tells  us  himself,  visiting  several  different  countries  for  the 
sake  of  obtaining  information,  and  exposing  himself  to  many 
dangers.  He  was  a  Sicilian  from  Agyrium  ;  from  his  long 
intercourse  with  the  Romans  he  had  become  familiar  with 
that  people  and  their  language,  and  diligently  collected  accounts 
of  all  their  chief  successes  and  failures. 

The  entire  history  is  comprised  in  forty  books.  In  the  first 
six  the  events  preceding  the  Trojan  war  and  other  legends  are 
described  ;  in  the  yiext  eleven,  the  events  of  the  world  from  the 
taking  of  Troy  to  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  in  the 
remaining  twenty-three,  the  events  up  to  the  time  when  war 
broke  out  between  the  Celts  and  Romans  under  the  leadership 
of  Julius  Caesar.  He  subdued  most  of,  and  the  most  warlike, 
of  their  nations  and  extended  the  Roman  empire  to  the 
British  islands,  at  which  point  the  history  ends. 

LXXI 

Read  the  History  of  Cassianus  Coccianus  (or  Coccius) 
Dio,^  in  eighty  books.     He  begins  with  the  arrival  of  Aeneas 

certainly  lived  till  after  21  B.C.  His  Historical  Library  in  forty  books  was  a 
history  of  the  world  down  to  Caesar's  Gallic  wars.  Only  books  1-5  and 
11-20  are  extant.  The  chief  value  of  the  work  consists  in  the  employment 
of  authorities  whose  works  are  now  lost,  the  preservation  of  old  tradition, 
and  especially  of  chronological  material. 

^  Cassius  Dio  Coccei.anus  {c.    155-230),   born  at   Njcaea  in    PJthynia, 


DIO  CASSIUS  91 

in  Italy  from  Troy,  the  foundation  of  Alba  and  Rome,  and 
goes  down  without  a  break  to  the  murder  of  Antoninus  named 
Elagabalus,  who  was  also  called  Tiberinus,  Sardanapalus, 
Pseudantoninus,  and  Assyrius  on  account  of  his  vices.  He 
also  says  something  about  the  reign  of  Alexander  who,  after 
the  death  of  Antoninus,  who  had  adopted  him  as  his  colleague 
in  the  empire,  escaped  the  danger  that  threatened  him  and 
succeeded  to  the  throne.  The  writer  tells  us  that  this 
Alexander  was  consul  for  the  second  time  together  with  him- 
self, and  that  the  emperor,  desirous  of  honouring  his  colleague, 
himself  defrayed  the  necessary  expenses  in  connexion  with  his 
office.  The  author  was  appointed  governor  of  Pergamum  and 
Smyrna  by  ^lacrinus,  and  was  afterwards  commander  of  the 
forces  in  Africa.  Soon  afterwards  he  was  governor  of 
Pannonia.  Elected  consul  for  the  second  time,  he  was 
allowed  to  return  home  owing  to  bad  feet,  to  spend  the  rest 
of  his  life  in  Bithynia,  as  his  "genius"  had  predicted,  "beyond 
the  reach  of  slaughter,  bloodshed,  and  tumult."  ^ 

He  was  born  at  Nicaea  in  Bithynia,  which  in  one  part  is 
surrounded  by  the  lake  called  Ascania.  His  style  is  grandiose 
and  bombastic,  reflecting  the  consciousness  of  mighty  events. 
His  language  is  full  of  antiquated  constructions,  and  of  words 
in  keeping  with  the  importance  of  the  events  described. 
Plis  periods  are  full  of  protracted  parentheses  and  ill-timed  ^ 
inversions.  The  rhythm  and  the  abrupt  interruptions,  being 
carefully  emj^loyed,  owing  to  the  general  clearness,  escape 
the  notice  of  the  casual  reader.  The  speeches,  after  the  style 
of  those  in  Thucydides,  but  clearer,  are  excellent.  In  almost 
everything  else  also  Thucydides  is  his  model. 

senator  and  holder  of  various  offices  under  Commodus  and  succeeding 
emperors,  beini^  twice  consul.  In  229  he  retired  into  private  life.  His 
history  of  Rome  in  eighty  books,  starting  from  the  mythical  period,  goes 
down  to  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus  (229).  Of  these  eighty  books 
37-60  have  come  down  almost  complete,  36-80  exist  in  an  eleventh- 
century  abridgment  by  tlie  monk  John  Xiphilinus.  In  the  tenth  century 
excerpts  were  made  from  ii  by  order  of  Constantine  VII  Porphyrogenitus, 
and  Zonaras  (twelfth  century)  made  an  abridgment  of  books  1-20.  His 
point  of  view  is  that  of  a  loyal  imperial  official,  who  does  not  understand, 
and  has  li.tle  sympathy  with,  earlier  political  struggles.  His  superstition  is 
pronounced. 

^  Iliad,  xi.  164.  ^  Reading  uKaipos  for  evKaipos. 


CTESIAS 


LXXII 

Read  the  Persica  of  Ctesias  ^  of  Cnidus  in  twenty-three 
books.  In  the  first  six  he  treats  of  Assyrian  affairs  and  of 
events  before  the  foundation  of  the  Persian  empire,  and  only 
begins  to  treat  of  Persian  affairs  in  the  seventh  book.  In 
books  7-13  he  gives  an  account  of  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  the 
Magian,  Darius,  and  Xerxes,  in  which  he  differs  ahnost 
entirely  from  Herodotus,  whom  he  accuses  of  falsehood  in 
many  passages  and  calls  an  inventor  of  fables.  Ctesias  is 
later  than  Herodotus,  and  says  that  he  was  an  eyewitness  of 
most  of  what  he  describes,  and  that,  where  this  was  not  the 
case,  he  obtained  his  information  directly  from  Persians,  and 
in  this  manner  he  composed  his  history.  He  not  only  dis- 
agrees with  Herodotus,  but  also  in  some  respects  with 
Xenophon  the  son  of  Gryllus.  Ctesias  flourished  in  the 
time  of  Cyrus,  son  of  Darius  and  Parysatis,  brother  of 
Artoxerxes  ^  who  succeeded  to  the  throne. 

He  begins  ^  by  stating  that  Astyages  (whom  he  also  calls 
Astyigas)  was  not  related  to  Cyrus ;  that  he  fled  from  him 
to  Agbatana,^  and  hid  himself  in  the  vaults  ^  of  the  royal 
palace  with  the  aid  of  his  daughter  Amytis  and  her  husband 
Spitamas  ;  that  Cyrus,  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  gave  orders 
that  not  only  Spitamas  and  Amytis,  but  also  their  sons  Spitaces 
and  Megabernes  should  be  put  to  the  torture  for  assisting 
Astyigas ;  that  the  latter,  to  save  his  grandchildren  from  being 

^  Of  Cnidus  on  the  coast  of  Caria  in  Asia  Minor.  He  was  for  seventeen 
years  (401-384)  court  physician  to  Artaxerxes  Mnemon,  whom  he  treated 
for  a  wound  received  at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa.  He  accuses  Herodotus  of 
being  a  liar,  but  often  lays  liimself  open  to  the  same  charge.  It  should  be 
remarked  that  in  writing  his  Persica  Ctesias  had  the  opportunity  of  consult- 
ing the  Persian  archives  and  natives,  whereas  in  regard  to  the  Indica  he 
had  no  such  advantages.  He  vi'as  also  the  author  of  an  account  of  the 
Persian  imperial  revenues,  and  of  some  books  of  travel  and  geographical 
works. 

^   More  commonly  Artaxerxes. 

^  For  the  historical  events  see  G.  Rawlinson,  Five  Great  Monarchies, 
iii  (1871),  and  for  an  estimate  of  Ctesias  as  an  historian  his  translation  of 
Plerodotup,  i.  71. 

*  Ecbatana. 

^  "Vaults"  is  used  to  express  the  sense  generally,  not  as  a  translation  of 
the  various  readings  :  KpiaKpava,  explained  as  "house  of  refuge  "  ;  KiSKpava, 
"epistyle";  Kiov6Kpava  "capitals"  of  columns  in  the  form  of  "rams'" 
heads. 


CTESIAS  93 

tortured  on  his  account,  gave  himself  up  and  was  taken  and 
loaded  with  chains  by  Oebaras ;  that  shortly  afterwards  he 
was  set  free  by  Cyrus  and  honoured  as  his  father ;  that  his 
daughter  Amytis  was  treated  by  him  as  a  mother  and  after- 
wards became  his  wife.  Her  husband  Spitamas,  however,  was 
put  to  death,  because,  when  asked,  he  had  falsely  declared 
that  he  did  not  know  where  Astyigas  was.  In  his  account  of 
these  events  Ctesias  differs  from  Herodotus.  He  adds  that 
Cyrus  made  war  upon  the  Bactrians,  without  obtaining  a 
decisive  victory ;  but  that  when  they  learnt  that  Astyigas  had 
been  adopted  by  Cyrus  as  his  father,  and  Amytis  as  his 
mother  and  wife,  they  voluntarily  submitted  to  Amytis  and 
Cyrus. 

He  also  relates  how  Cyrus  made  war  on  the  Sacae,  and 
took  prisoner  their  king  Amorges,  the  husband  of  Sparethra, 
who  after  her  husband  was  captured  collected  an  army  of 
300,000  men  and  200,000  women,  made  war  upon  Cyrus  and 
defeated  him.  Amongst  the  large  number  of  prisoners  taken 
by  the  Sacae  were  Parmises,  the  brother  of  Amytis,  and  his 
three  sons,  who  were  subsequently  released  in  exchange  for 
Amorges. 

Cyrus,  assisted  by  Amorges,  marched  against  Croesus  and 
the  city  of  Sardes.  By  the  advice  of  Oebaras  he  set  up 
wooden  figures  representing  Persians  round  the  walls,  the 
sight  of  which  so  terrified  the  inhabitants  that  the  city  was 
easily  taken.  Before  this,  the  son  of  Croesus  was  handed 
over  as  a  hostage,  the  king  himself  having  been  deceived  by 
a  divine  vision.  Since  Croesus  was  evidently  meditating 
treachery,  his  son  was  put  to  death  before  his  eyes ;  his 
mother,  who  was  a  witness  of  his  execution,  committed  suicide 
by  throwing  herself  from  the  walls.  After  the  city  was  taken 
Croesus  fled  for  refuge  to  the  temple  of  Apollo ;  he  was  three 
times  put  in  chains,  and  three  times  loosed  invisibly  from  his 
bonds,  although  the  temple  was  shut  and  sealed,  and  Oebaras 
was  on  guard.  Those  who  had  been  prisoners  with  Croesus 
had  their  heads  cut  off,  on  suspicion  of  having  conspired  to 
release  him.  He  was  subsequently  taken  to  the  palace  and 
bound  more  securely,  but  was  again  loosed  by  thunder  and 
lightning  sent  from  heaven.  Finally  Cyrus,  against  his  will, 
set  him  free,  treated  him  kindly  from  that  time,  and  bestowed 
upon  him  a  large  city  near  Agbatana,  named  Barene,  in  which 


94 


CTESIAS 


there  were  5000  horsemen  and  10,000  peltasts/  javeh'n- 
Ihrowers,  and  archers. 

Cyrus  then  sent  Petisacas  the  eunuch,  who  had  great 
influence  with  him,  to  Persia  to  fetch  Astyigas  from  the 
Barcanians,  he  and  his  daughter  Amytis  being  anxious  to  see 
him.  Oebaras  then  advised  Petisacas  to  leave  Astyigas  in 
some  lonely  spot,  to  perish  of  hunger  and  thirst ;  which  he 
did.  But  the  crime  was  revealed  in  a  dream,  and  Petisacas, 
at  the  urgent  request  of  Amytis,  was  handed  over  to  her  by 
Cyrus  for  punishment.  She  ordered  his  eyes  to  be  dug  out, 
had  him  flayed  alive,  and  then  crucified.  Oebaras,  afraid  of 
suffering  the  same  punishment,  although  Cyrus  assured  him 
that  he  would  not  allow  it,  starved  himself  to  death  by  fasting 
for  ten  days.  Astyigas  was  accorded  a  splendid  funeral ;  his 
body  had  remained  untouched  by  wild  beasts  in  the  wilder- 
ness, some  lions  having  guarded  it  until  it  was  removed  by 
Petisacas. 

Cyrus  marched  against  the  Derbices  (Derbikes),  whose  king 
was  Amoraeus.  The  Derbices  suddenly  brought  up  some 
elephants  which  had  been  kept  in  ambush,  and  put  Cyrus's 
cavalry  to  flight.  Cyrus  himself  fell  from  his  horse,  and  an 
Indian  wounded  him  mortally  with  a  javelin  under  the  thigh. 
The  Indians  fought  on  the  side  of  the  Derbices  and  supplied 
them  with  elephants.  Cyrus's  friends  took  him  up  while  he 
was  still  alive  and  returned  to  camp.  Many  Persians  and 
Derbices  were  slain,  to  the  number  of  10,000  on  each  side. 

Amorges,  when  he  heard  of  what  had  happened  to  Cyrus, 
in  great  haste  went  to  the  assistance  of  the  Persians  with 
20,000  Sacan  cavalry.  In  a  subsequent  engagement,  the 
Persians  and  Sacae  gained  a  brilliant  victory,  Amoraeus,  the 
king  of  the  Derbices,  and  his  two  sons  being  slain.  Thirty 
thousand  Derbicans  and  9000  Persians  fell  in  the  battle. 
The  country  then  submitted  to  Cyrus. 

Cyrus,  when  near  his  death,  declared  his  elder  son 
Cambyses  king,  his  younger  son  Tanyoxarces  (Tanyoxarkes) 
governor  of  Bactria,  Choramnia,  Parthia,  and  Carmania,  free 
from  tribute.  Of  the  children  of  Spitamas,  he  appointed 
Spitaces  satrap  of  the  Derbices,  Megabernes  of  the  Barcanians, 
bidding    them    obey    their   mother   in   everything.      He   also 

^  Peliasts,    light-armed   troops,    v\ho   cariied    the   small   shield    called 
pelta. 


CTESIAS  95 

endeavoured  to  make  them  friends  with  Amorges,  bestowing 
his  blessing  on  those  who  should  remain  on  fr'endly  terms  with 
one  another,  and  a  curse  upon  those  who  first  did  wrong. 
With  these  words  he  died,  three  days  after  he  had  been 
wounded,  after  a  reign  of  thirty  years.  This  is  the  end  of 
the  eleventh  book. " 

The  twelfth  book  begins  with  the  reign  of  Cambyses. 
Immediately  after  his  accession  he  sent  his  father's  body  by 
the  eunuch  Bagapates  to  Persia  for  burial,  and  in  all  other 
respects  carried  out  his  father's  wishes.  The  men  who  had 
the  greatest  influence  with  him  were  Artasyras  the  Hyrcanian, 
and  the  eunuchs  Izabates,  Aspadates,  and  Bagapates,  who  had 
been  his  father's  favourite  after  the  death  of  Petisacas.  Baga- 
pates was  in  command  of  the  expedition  against  Egypt  and  its 
king  Amyrtaeus,  whom  he  defeated,  through  the  treachery  of 
his  chief  counsellor  Combaphis  the  eunuch,  who  betrayed 
the  bridges  and  other  important  secrets,  on  condition  that 
Cambyses  made  him  governor  of  Egypt.  Cambyses  first 
made  this  arrangement  with  him  through  Izabates,  the  cousin 
of  Combaphis,  and  afterwards  confirmed  it  by  his  personal 
promise.  Having  taken  Amyrtaeus  alive  he  did  him  no  harm, 
but  merely  removed  him  to  Susa  with  6000  Egyptians  chosen 
by  himself.  The  whole  of  Egypt  then  became  subject  to 
Cambyses.  The  Egyptians  lost  50,000  men  in  the  battle,  the 
Persians  7000. 

In  the  meantime  a  certain  Magian  called  Sphendadates,^ 
who  had  been  flogged  by  Tanyoxarces  for  some  offence,  went 
to  Cambyses  and  informed  him  that  his  brother  was  plotting 
against  him.  In  proof  of  this  he  declared  that  Tanyoxarces 
would  refuse  to  come  if  summoned.  Cambyses  thereupon 
summoned  his  brother,  who,  being  engaged  on  another  matter, 
put  off  coming.  The  Magian  thereupon  accused  him  more 
freely.  His  mother  Amytis,  who  suspected  the  Magian,  ad- 
vised Cambyses  not  to  listen  to  him.  Cambyses  pretended 
not  to  believe  him,  while  in  reality  he  did.  Being  summoned 
by  Cambyses  a  third  time,  Tanyoxarces  obeyed  the  summons. 
His  brother  embraced  him,  but  nevertheless  determined  to  put 
him  to  death,  and,  unknown  to  his  mother  Amytis,  took 
measures  to  carry  out  his  plan.  The  Magian  made  the  follow- 
ing suggestion.    Being  himself  very  like  Tanyoxarces,  he  advised 

^  Variously  called  Smerdis,  Mergis,  Merdis. 


96  CTESIAS 

the  king  publicly  to  order  that  his  head  should  be  cut  off  as 
having  falsely  accused  the  king's  brother;  that  in  the  mean- 
time Tanyoxarces  should  secretly  be  put  to  death,  and  he  (the 
Magian)  should  be  dressed  in  his  clothes,  so  that  Tanyoxarces 
should  be  thought  alive.  Cambyses  agreed  to  this.  Tanyox- 
arces was  put  to  death  by  being  forced  to  drink  bull's  blood; 
the  Magian  put  on  his  clothes  and  was  mistaken  for  him  by 
the  people.  The  fraud  was  not  known  for  a  long  time  except 
to  Artasyras,  Bagapates,  and  Izabates,  to  whom  alone  Cambyses 
had  entrusted  the  secret. 

Then  Cambyses,  having  summoned  Labyzus,  the  chief  of 
Tanyoxarces's  eunuchs,  and  the  other  eunuchs,  showed  them 
the  Magian  seated  and  dressed  in  the  guise  of  his  brother, 
and  asked  them  whether  they  thought  he  was  Tanyoxarces. 
Labyzus,  in  astonishment,  replied,  "  Whom  else  should  we 
think  him  to  be  ? "  the  likeness  being  so  great  that  he  was 
deceived.  The  Magian  was  accordingly  sent  to  Bactria,  where 
he  played  the  part  of  Tanyoxarces.  Five  years  later  Amytis, 
having  learnt  the  truth  from  the  eunuch  Tibethis,  whom  the 
Magian  had  flogged,  demanded  that  Cambyses  should  hand 
over  Sphendadates  to  her,  but  he  refused.  Whereupon  Amytis, 
after  heaping  curses  upon  him,  drank  poison  and  died. 

On  a  certain  occasion,  while  Cambyses  was  offering  sacrifice, 
no  blood  flowed  from  the  slaughtered  victims.  This  greatly 
alarmed  him,  and  the  birth  of  a  son  without  a  head  by  Roxana 
increased  this  alarm.  This  portent  was  interpreted  by  the 
wise  men  to  mean  that  he  would  leave  no  successor.  His 
mother  also  appeared  to  him  in  a  dream,  threatening  retribution 
for  the  murder  he  had  committed,  which  alarmed  him  still  more. 
At  Babylon,  while  carving  a  piece  of  wood  with  a  knife  for  his 
amusement,  he  accidentally  wounded  himself  in  the  thigh,  and 
died  eleven  days  afterwards,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign. 

Bagapates  and  Artasyras,  before  the  death  of  Cambyses, 
conspired  to  raise  the  Magian  to  the  throne,  as  they  afterwards 
did.  Izabates,  who  had  gone  to  convey  the  body  of  Cambyses 
to  Persia,  finding  on  his  return  that  the  Magian  was  reigning 
under  the  name  of  Tanyoxarces,  disclosed  the  truth  to  the 
army  and  exposed  the  Magian.^  After  this  he  took  refuge  in 
a  temple,  where  he  was  seized  and  put  to  death. 

^  This  seems  a  possible  meaning  of  6piaal3€vcras,  combined  with  the  idea 
of  a  personal  triumph. 


CTESIAS  9^. 

Then  seven  distinguished  Persians  conspired  against  the 
Magian.  Their  names  were  Onophas,  Idernes,  Norondabates, 
Mardonius,  Barisses,  Ataphernes,  and  Darius  Hystaspis.^ 
After  they  had  given  and  taken  the  most  solemn  pledges, 
they  admitted  to  their  counsels  Artasyras  and  Bagapates,  who 
kept  all  the  keys  of  the  palace.  The  seven,  having  been  ad- 
mitted into  the  palace  by  Bagapates,  found  the  Magian  asleep. 
At  the  sight  of  them  he  jumped  up,  but  finding  no  weapon 
ready  to  hand  (for  Bagapates  had  secretly  removed  them  all) 
he  smashed  a  chair  made  of  gold  and  defended  himself  with 
one  of  the  legs,  but  was  finally  stabbed  to  death  by  the  seven. 
He  had  reigned  seven  months. 

Darius  was  chosen  king  from  the  seven  conspirators  in  ac- 
cordance with  a  test  agreed  upon,  his  horse  being  the  first  to 
neigh  after  the  sun  had  risen,  the  result  of  a  cunning  stratagem. ^ 
The  Persians  celebrate  the  day  on  which  the  Magian  was  put 
to  death  by  a  festival  called  Magophonia.  Darius  ordered  a 
tomb  ^  to  be  built  for  himself  in  a  two-peaked  mountain,  but 
when  he  desired  to  go  and  see  it  he  was  dissuaded  by  the 
soothsayers  and  his  parents.  The  latter,  however,  were  anxious 
to  make  the  ascent  to  it,  but  the  priests  who  were  dragging 
them  up,  being  frightened  at  the  sight  of  some  snakes,  let  go 
the  ropes  and  they  fell  and  were  dashed  to  pieces.  Darius  was 
greatly  grieved  and  ordered  the  heads  of  the  forty  men  who 
were  responsible  to  be  cut  off. 

Darius  ordered  Ariaramnes,  satrap  of  Cappadocia,  to  cross 
over  into  Scythia,  and  carry  off  a  number  of  prisoners,  male 
and  female.  He  went  over  in  thirty  penteconters,*  and  among 
others  took  captive  Marsagetes,  the  Scythian  king's  brother, 
who  had  been  imprisoned  by  his  own  brother  for  certain 
offences.  The  ruler  of  the  Scythians  (Scytharkes),  being  en- 
raged, wrote  an-  abusive  letter  to  Darius,  who  replied  in  the 
same  tone.  Darius  then  collected  an  army  of  800,000  m.en 
and  crossed  the  Bosporus  and  the  Ister  ^  by  a  bridge  of  boats 
into  Scythian  territory  in  fifteen  days.     The  two  kings   sent 

^  Herodotus  gives  the  names  as :  Intaphernes,  Otanes,  Gobryas, 
Hydarnes,   Megabyzus,  Aspathines,   Darius. 

^  Herodotus,  iii,  85. 

^  On  the  tomb  of  Dariu'=:,  see  Rawlinson,  Five  Great  Monarchies,  iii. 
320. 

*  A  penteconter  was  a  ship  carrying  fifty  oars. 

^  The  Danube. 

VOL.  I.  G 


98  CTESIAS 

each  other  a  bow  in  turn.  Uarius,  seeing  that  the  bow  of  the 
Scythians  was  stronger,  turned  back  and  fled  across  the  bridges, 
destroying  some  of  them  in  his  haste  before  the  entire  army 
had  crossed.  Eighty  thousand  of  his  men,  who  had  been 
left  behind  in  Europe,  were  put  to  death  by  the  ruler  of  the 
Scythians.  Uarius,  after  he  had  crossed  the  bridge,  set  fire  to 
the  houses  and  temples  of  the  Chalcedonians,  because  they 
had  attempted  to  break  down  the  bridges  which  he  had  made 
near  their  city  and  had  also  destroyed  the  altar  erected  by  him, 
when  crossing,  in  honour  of  Zeus  Diabaterios.^ 

Datis,  the  commander  of  the  Persian  fleet,  on  his  return 
from  Pontus,  ravaged  Greece  and  the  islands.  At  Marathon 
he  was  met  by  Miltiades ;  the  barbarians  were  defeated  and 
Datis  himself  slain,  the  Athenians  afterwards  refusing  to  give 
up  his  body  at  the  request  of  the  Persians. 

Darius  then  returned  to  Persia,  where,  after  having  offered 
sacrifice,  he  died  after  an  illness  of  thirty  days,  in  the  seventy- 
second  year  of  his  age  and  the  thirty-first  of  his  reign.  Arta- 
syras  and  Bagapates  also  died,  the  latter  having  been  for  seven 
years  the  keeper  of  the  tomb  of  Darius. 

Darius  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes,  over  whom 
Artapanus  the  son  of  Artasyras  had  as  great  influence  as  his 
father  had  had  over  Darius.  His  other  confidential  advisers 
were  the  aged  Mardonius  and  Matacas  the  eunuch.  Xerxes 
married  Amestris,  the  daughter  of  Onophas,  who  bore  him  a 
son,  Dariaeus,  two  years  afterwards  Hystaspes  and  Artoxerxes, 
and  two  daughters,  one  named  Rhodogune  and  another  called 
Amytis  after  her  grandmother. 

Xerxes  decided  to  make  war  upon  Greece,  because  the 
Chalcedonians  had  attempted  to  break  down  the  bridge  as 
already  stated  and  had  destroyed  the  altar  which  Darius  had 
set  up,  and  because  the  Athenians  had  slain  Datis  and  refused 
to  give  up  his  body.  But  first  he  visited  Babylon,  being  de- 
sirous of  seeing  the  tomb  of  Belitanes,^  which  Mardonius 
showed  him.  But  he  was  unable  to  fill  the  vessel  of  oil,  as 
had  been  written. 

Thence  he  proceeded  to  Agbatana,  where  he  heard  of  the 
revolt  of  the  Babylonians  and  the  murder  of  Zopyrus  their 

^  Zeus  as  the  god  of  crossing.     The  "altar"  was  probably  a  column 
set  up  to  commemorate  his  passage. 

2  Belus  or  Bel.     P^or  the  story  see  Aelian,  Var.  Hist.,  xiii.  3. 


CTESIAS  99 

satrap.  Ctesias's  account  is  different  from  that  of  Herodotus. 
What  the  latter  relates  of  Zopyrus  is  attributed  by  Ctesias,  with 
the  exception  of  his  mule  giving  birth  to  a  foal,  to  Megabyzus, 
the  son-in-law  of  Xerxes  and  the  husband  of  his  daughter 
Amytis.  Babylon  was  taken  by  Megabyzus,  upon  whom 
Xerxes  bestowed,  amongst  other  rewards,  a  golden  hand-mill, 
weighing  six  talents,  the  most  honourable  of  the  royal  gifts. 
Then  Xerxes,  having  collected  a  Persian  army,  800,000  men 
and  1000  triremes  without  reckoning  the  chariots,  set  out 
against  Greece,  having  first  thrown  a  bridge  across  at  Abydos. 
Demaratus  the  Spartan,  who  arrived  there  first  and  accom- 
panied Xerxes  across,  dissuaded  him  from  invading  Sparta. 
His  general  Artapanus,  with  10,000  men,  fought  an  engage- 
ment with  Leonidas,  the  Spartan  general,  at  Thermopylae ;  the 
Persian  host  was  cut  to  pieces,  while  only  two  or  three  of  the 
Spartans  were  slain.  The  king  then  ordered  an  attack  with 
20,000,  but  these  were  defeated,  and  although  flogged  to  the 
battle,  were  routed  again.  The  next  day  he  ordered  an  attack 
with  50,000,  but  without  success,  and  accordingly  ceased  oper- 
ations. Thorax  the  Thessalian  and  Calliades  and  Timaphernes, 
the  leaders  of  the  Trachinians,  who  were  present  with  their 
forces,  were  summoned  by  Xerxes  together  with  Demaratus 
and  Hegias  the  Ephesian,  who  told  him  that  the  Spartans 
could  never  be  defeated  unless  they  were  surrounded.  A 
Persian  army  of  40,000  men  was  conducted  by  the  two  leaders 
of  the  Trachinians  over  an  almost  inaccessible  mountain-path 
to  the  rear  of  the  Lacedaemonians,  who  were  surrounded  and 
died  bravely  to  a  man. 

Xerxes  sent  another  army  of  120,000  men  against  Plataea 
under  the  command  of  Mardonius,  at  the  instigation  of  the 
Thebans.  He  was  opposed  by  Pausanias  the  Spartan,  with 
only  300  Spartiates,^  1000  perioeki,^  and  6000  from  the  other 
cities.  The  Persians  suffered  a  severe  defeat,  Mardonius 
being  wounded  and  obliged  to  take  to  flight.  He  was  after- 
wards sent  by  Xerxes  to  plunder  the  temple  of  Apollo,  where 
he  is  said  to  have  died  from  injuries  received  during  a  terrible 
hailstorm,  to  the  great  grief  of  Xerxes. 

Xerxes  then  advanced  against  Athens  itself,  the  inhabitants 

^  The  9000  full  citizens  of  Sparta,  who  formed  a  kind  of  nobility. 
^  The  free  inhabitants  of  the  towns  (except   Sparta)  who  enjoyed  civil 
but  not  political  liberty. 


loo  CTESIAS 

of  which  manned  no  triremes  and  took  refuge  in  Salamis. 
Xerxes  took  possession  of  the  empty  city  and  set  fire  to  it,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Acropolis,  which  was  defended  by  a  small 
band  of  men  who  had  remained  ;  at  last,  they  also  made  their 
escape  by  night,  and  the  Acropolis  was  fired.  After  this, 
Xerxes  proceeded  to  a  narrow  strip  of  land  in  Attica  called 
Heracleum,  and  began  to  construct  an  embankment  in  the 
direction  of  Salamis,  intending  to  cross  over  on  foot.  By  the 
advice  of  the  Athenians  Themistocles  and  Aristides  archers 
were  summoned  from  Crete.^  Then  a  naval  engagement 
took  place  between  the  Greeks  with  700  ships  and  the 
Persians  with  more  than  1000  under  Onophas.  The  Athenians 
were  victorious,  thanks  to  the  advice  and  clever  strategy  of 
Aristides  and  Themistocles ;  the  Persians  lost  500  ships,  and 
Xerxes  took  to  flight.  In  the  remaining  battles  12,000  Persians 
were  killed. 

Xerxes,  having  crossed  over  into  Asia  and  advanced 
towards  Sardes,  despatched  Megabyzus  to  plunder  the  temple 
at  Delphi.  On  his  refusing  to  go,  the  eunuch  Matacas 
was  sent  in  his  place,  to  insult  Apollo  and  plunder  the  temple. 
Having  carried  out  his  orders  he  returned  to  Xerxes,  who  in 
the  meantime  had  arrived  in  Persia  from  Babylon.  Here 
Megabyzus  accused  his  wife  Amytis  (the  daughter  of  Xerxes)  of 
having  committed  adultery.  Xerxes  severely  reprimanded  her, 
but  she  declared  that  she  was  not  guilty.  Artapanus  and 
Aspamitres  the  eunuch,  the  confidential  advisers  of  Xerxes, 
resolved  to  kill  their  master.  Having  done  so,  they  persuaded 
Artoxerxes  that  his  brother  Dariaeus  had  murdered  him. 
Dariaeus  was  taken  to  the  palace  of  Artoxerxes,  and,  although 
he  vehemently  denied  the  accusation,  he  was  put  to  death. 

Thus  Artoxerxes  became  king,  thanks  to  Artapanus,  who 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  him  with  Megabyzus  (who 
was  bitterly  aggrieved  at  the  suspicion  of  adultery  against  his 
wife),  each  taking  an  oath  to  remain  loyal  to  the  other. 
Nevertheless,  Megabyzus  revealed  the  plot,  the  guilty  conduct 
of  Artapanus  came  to  light,  and  he  met  the  death  which  he 
had  intended  for  Artoxerxes.  Aspamitres,  who  had  taken  part 
in  the  murders  of  Xerxes  and  Dariaeus  was  cruelly  put  to 
death,    being   exposed   in  the  trough.  ^     After   the   death   of 

^  Apparently  to  hinder  the  construction  of  the  embankment. 

-  The  criminal  was  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  two  boat-like 


CTESIAS  10 1 

Artapanus  there  was  a  battle  between  his  fellow-conspirators 
and  the  other  Persians,  in  which  the  three  sons  of  Artapanus 
were  killed  and  Megabyzus  severely  wounded.  Artoxerxes, 
Amytis,  and  Rhodogune,  and  their  mother  Amestris  were 
deeply  grieved,  and  his  life  was  only  saved  by  the  skill  and 
attention  of  Apollonides,  a  physician  of  Cos. 

Bactra  and  its  satrap,  another  Artapanus,  revolted  from 
Artoxerxes.  The  first  battle  was  indecisive,  but  in  a  second, 
the  Bactrians  were  defeated  because  the  wind  blew  in  their 
faces,  and  the  whole  of  Bactria  submitted. 

Egypt,  under  the  leadership  of  Inarus  a  Libyan,  assisted 
by  a  native  of  the  country,  also  revolted,  and  preparations  were 
made  for  war.  At  the  request  of  Inarus  the  Athenians  sent 
forty  ships  to  his  aid.  Artoxerxes  himself  was  desirous  of 
taking  part  in  the  expedition,  but  his  friends  dissuaded  him. 
He  therefore  sent  Achaemenides  his  brother  with  400,000 
infantry  and  eighty  ships.  Inarus  joined  battle  with  Achae- 
menides, the  Egyptians  were  victorious,  Achaemenides  being 
slain  by  Inarus  and  his  body  sent  to  Artoxerxes.  Inarus  was 
also  successful  at  sea.  Charitimides,  the  commander  of  the 
forty  Athenian  ships,  covered  himself  with  glory  in  a  naval 
engagement,  in  which  twenty  out  of  fifty  Persian  ships  were 
captured  with  their  crews,  and  the  remaining  thirty  sunk. 

The  king  then  sent  Megabyzus  against  Inarus,  with  an 
additional  army  of  200,000  men  and  300  ships  commanded  by 
Oriscus ;  so  that,  not  counting  the  ships'  crews,  his  army  con- 
sisted of  500,000.  For,  when  Achaemenides  fell,  100,000  of 
his  400,000  men  perished.  A  desperate  battle  ensued,  in 
which  the  losses  were  heavy  on  both  sides,  although  those  of 
the  Egyptians  were  heavier.  Megabyzus  wounded  Inarus  in 
the  thigh,  and  put  him  to  flight,  and  the  Persians  obtained  a 
complete  victory.  Inarus  fled  to  Byblus,  an  Egyptian  strong- 
hold, accompanied  by  those  of  the  Greeks  who  had  not  been 
killed  in  battle.  Then  all  Egypt,  except  Byblus,  submitted  to 
Megabyzus.  But  since  this  stronghold  appeared  impregnable, 
he  came  to  terms  with  Inarus  and  the  Greeks  (6000  and  more 
in  number),  on  condition  that  they  should  suffer  no  harm  from 
the  king,  and  that  the  Greeks  should  be  allowed  to  return 
home  whenever  they  pleased. 

troughs  closely  fitted  together  with  head,  arnr:,  and  legs  hanging  out  until 
he  died  eaten  by  insects  {see  Plutarch,  Life  0/ Ar/axerxes,  16). 


J02      ^  CTESIAS 

Having  appointed  Sarsamas  satrap  of  Egypt,  Megabyzus 
took  Inarus  and  the  Greeks  to  Artoxerxes,  who  was  greatly 
enraged  with  Inarus  because  he  had  slain  his  brother 
Achaemenides.  Megabyzus  told  him  what  had  happened,  how 
he  had  given  his  word  to  Inarus  and  the  Greeks  when  he 
occupied  Byblus,  and  earnestly  entreated  the  king  to  spare 
their  lives.  The  king  consented,  and  the  news  that  no  harm 
would  come  to  Inarus  and  the  Greeks  was  immediately  reported 
to  the  army. 

But  Amestris,  aggrieved  at  the  idea  that  Inarus  and  the 
Greeks  should  escape  punishment  for  the  death  of  her  son 
Achaemenides,  asked  the  king  [to  give  them  up  to  her],  but  he 
refused  ;  she  then  appealed  to  Megabyzus,  who  also  dismissed 
her.  At  last,  however,  through  her  constant  importunity  she 
obtained  her  wish  from  her  son,  and  after  five  years  the  king 
gave  up  Inarus  and  the  Greeks  to  her.  Inarus  was  impaled 
on  three  stakes  ;  fifty  of  the  Greeks,  all  that  she  could  lay  hands 
on,  were  decapitated.  Megabyzus  was  deeply  grieved  at  this, 
and  asked  permission  to  retire  to  his  satrapy,  Syria.  Having 
secretly  sent  the  rest  of  the  Greeks  thither  in  advance,  on  his 
arrival  he  collected  a  large  army  (150,000  not  including  cavalry) 
and  raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  Usiris  with  200,000  men 
was  sent  against  him  ;  a  battle  took  place,  in  which  Megabyzus 
and  Usiris  wounded  each  other.  Usiris  inflicted  a  wound  with 
a  spear  in  Megabyzus's  thigh  two  fingers  deep ;  Megabyzus  in 
turn  first  wounded  Usiris  in  the  thigh  and  then  in  the  shoulder, 
so  that  he  fell  from  his  horse.  Megabyzus,  as  he  fell,  protected 
him,  and  ordered  that  he  should  be  spared.  Many  Persians 
were  slain  in  the  battle,  in  which  Zopyrus  and  Artyphius,  the 
sons  of  Megabyzus,  distinguished  themselves,  and  Megabyzus 
gained  a  decisive  victory.  Usiris  received  the  greatest  attention 
and  was  sent  to  Artoxerxes  at  his  request. 

Another  army  was  sent  against  him  under  Menostanes  the 
son  of  Artarius,  satrap  of  Babylon  and  brother  of  Artoxerxes. 
Another  battle  took  place,  in  which  the  Persians  were  routed ; 
Menostanes  was  shot  by  Megabyzus,  first  in  the  shoulder  and 
then  in  the  head,  but  the  wound  was  not  mortal.  However, 
he  fled  with  his  army  and  Megabyzus  gained  a  brilliant  victory. 
Artarius  then  sent  to  Megabyzus,  advising  him  to  come  to  terms 
with  the  king.  Megabyzus  replied  that  he  was  ready  to  do  so, 
but  on  condition  that  he  should  not  be  obliged  to  appear  at 


CTESIAS  103 

court  again,  and  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  his  satrapy. 
When  his  answer  was  reported  to  the  king,  the  Paphlagonian 
eunuch  Artoxares  and  Amestris  urged  him  to  make  peace 
without  delay.  Accordingly,  Artarius,  his  wife  Amytis, 
Artoxares  (then  twenty  years  of  age),  and  Petisas,  the  son  of 
Usiris  and  father  of  Spitamas,  were  sent  for  that  purpose  to 
Megabyzus.  After  many  entreaties  and  solemn  promises,  with 
great  difficulty  they  succeeded  in  persuading  Megabyzus  to  visit 
the  king,  who  finally  pardoned  him  for  all  his  offences. 

Some  time  afterwards,  while  the  king  was  out  hunting  he 
was  attacked  by  a  lion,  which  Megabyzus  slew  as  it  reared  and 
was  preparing  to  rush  upon  him.  The  king,  enraged  because 
Megabyzus  had  slain  the  animal  first,  ordered  his  head  to  be 
cut  off,  but  owing  to  the  entreaties  of  Amestris,  Amytis,  and 
others  his  life  w^as  spared  and  he  was  banished  to  Curtae,  a 
town  on  the  Red  Sea.  Artoxares  the  eunuch  was  also 
banished  to  Armenia  for  having;  often  spoken  freely  to  the 
king  in  favour  of  Megabyzus.  After  having  passed  five  years 
in  exile,  Megabyzus  escaped  by  pretending  to  be  a  leper,  whom 
no  one  might  approach,  and  returned  home  to  Amytis,  who 
hardly  recognized  him.  On  the  intercession  of  Amestris  and 
Amytis,  the  king  became  reconciled  to  him  and  admitted  him 
to  his  table  as  before.  Megabyzus  died  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
six,  deeply  mourned  by  the  king. 

After  his  death,  his  wife  Amytis,  like  her  mother  Amestris 
before  her,  showed  great  fondness  for  the  society  of  men.  The 
physician  Apollonides  of  Cos,  when  Amytis  was  suffering  from 
a  slight  illness,  being  called  in  to  attend  her,  fell  in  love  with 
her.  For  some  time  they  carried  on  an  intrigue,  but  finally 
she  told  her  mother.  She  in  turn  informed  the  king,  who  left 
her  to  do  as  she  would  with  the  offender.  Apollonides  was 
kept  in  chains  for  two  months  as  a  punishment,  and  then  buried 
alive  on  the  same  day  that  Amytis  died. 

Zopyrus,  the  son  of  Megabyzus  and  Amytis,  after  the  death 
of  his  father  and  mother  revolted  against  the  king.  He 
visited  Athens,  where  he  was  well  received  owing  to  the 
services  his  mother  had  rendered  to  the  Athenians.^  From 
Athens  he  sailed  wdth  some  Athenian  troops  to  Caunus  and 
summoned  it  to  surrender.     The  inhabitants  expressed  them- 

^  Referring  to  ihe  efforts  of  Megabyzus  and  Amytis  on  behalf  of  the 
Greek  prisoners. 


104  CTESIAS 

selves  ready  to  do  so,  provided  the  Athenians  who  accompanied 
him  were  not  admitted.  While  Zopyrus  was  mounting  the 
wall,  a  Caunian  named  Alcides  hit  him  on  the  head  with  a 
stone  and  killed  him.  The  Caunian  was  crucified  by  order 
of  his  grandmother  Amestris.  Some  time  afterwards,  Amestris 
died  at  a  great  age,  and  Artoxerxes  also  died  after  having 
reigned  forty-two  years.     Here  the  seventeenth  book  ends. 

Artoxerxes  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes,  his  only 
legitimate  son  by  Damaspia,  who  died  on  the  same  day  as 
her  husband. 1  The  bodies  of  the  king  and  queen  were  con- 
veyed by  Bagorazus  to  Persia.  Artoxerxes  had  seventeen 
illegitimate  sons,  amongst  them  Secydianus  by  Alogune  the 
Babylonian,  Ochus  (afterwards  king)  and  Arsites  by  Cosmar- 
tidene,  also  a  Babylonian.  Besides  these  three,  he  also  had 
a  son  Bagapaeus  and  a  daughter  Parysatis  by  Andria,  also 
a  Babylonian,  who  became  the  mother  of  Artoxerxes  and 
Cyrus.  During  his  father's  lifetime,  Ochus  was  made  satrap 
of  Hyrcania,  and  given  in  marriage  to  Parysatis,  the  daughter 
of  Artoxerxes  and  his  own  sister. 

Secydianus,  having  won  over  the  eunuch  Pharnacyas,  who 
had  the  greatest  influence  over  Xerxes  next  to  Bagorazus, 
Menostanes,  and  some  others,  entered  the  palace  after  a 
festival,  while  Xerxes  was  lying  in  a  drunken  sleep  and  put 
him  to  death,  forty-five  days  after  the  death  of  his  father. 
The  bodies  of  both  father  and  son  were  conveyed  together 
to  Persia,  for  the  mules  which  drew  the  chariot  in  which  was 
the  father's  body,  refused  to  move,  as  if  waiting  for  that  of 
the  son  ;  and  when  it  arrived,^  they  at  once  went  on  rapidly. 

Secydianus  thus  became  king  and  appointed  Menostanes 
his  azabarites.^  After  Bagorazus  returned  to  court,  Secydianus, 
who  cherished  a  long-standing  enmity  against  him,  on  the 
pretext  that  he  had  left  his  father's  body  in  Persia  without 
his  permission,  ordered  him  to  be  stoned  to  death.  The 
army  was  greatly  grieved,  and,  although  Secydianus  distributed 
large  sums  amongst  the  soldiers,  they  hated  him  for  the 
murder  of  his  brother  Xerxes  and  now  for  that  of  Bagorazus. 

1  Reading  'ApTo^€p^ri<i,  not  He'plrjs. 

*  KareAafie.  Others  render  "  when  it  (/.  e.  deaih)  overtook  him,"  when 
the  son  also  died. 

'  A  Persian  title,  perhaps  identical  wilh  Azarapates,  a  sort  of  gentleman- 
usher  of  the  court. 


CTESIAS  105 

Secydianus  then  summoned  Ochus  to  court,  who  promised 
to  present  himself  but  failed  to  do  so.  After  he  had  been 
summoned  several  times,  he  collected  a  large  force  with  the 
obvious  intention  of  seizing  the  throne.  He  was  joined  by 
Arbarius,  commander  of  the  cavalry,  and  Arxanes,  satrap  of 
Egypt.  The  eunuch  Artoxares  also  came  from  Armenia  and 
placed  the  crown  ^  on  the  head  of  Ochus  against  his  will. 

Thus  Ochus  became  king  and  changed  his  name  to 
Dariaeus.  At  the  suggestion  of  Parysatis,  he  endeavoured 
by  trickery  and  solemn  promises  to  win  over  Secydianus. 
Menostanes  did  all  he  could  to  prevent  Secydianus  from 
putting  faith  in  these  promises  or  coming  to  terms  with  those 
who  were  trying  to  deceive  him.  In  spite  of  this  Secydianus 
allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded,  was  arrested,  thrown  into 
the  ashes, 2  and  died,  after  a  reign  of  six  months  and  fifteen 
days. 

Ochus  (also  called  Dariaeus)  thus  became  sole  ruler.  Three 
eunuchs,  Artoxares,  Artibarzanes,  and  Athous  had  the  greatest 
influence  with  him,  but  his  chief  adviser  was  his  wife.  By 
her  he  had  had  two  children  before  he  became  king,  a 
daughter  Amestris  and  a  son  Arsaces,  afterwards  called 
Artoxerxes.  After  his  accession  she  bore  him  another  son, 
called  Cyrus  from  the  sun.^  A  third  son  was  named  Artostes, 
who  was  followed  by  several  others,  to  the  number  of  thirteen. 
The  writer  says  that  he  obtained  these  particulars  from 
Parysatis  herself.  Most  of  the  children  soon  died,  the  only 
survivors  being  those  just  mentioned  and  a  fourth  named 
Oxendras.  Arsites,  his  own  brother  by  the  same  father  and 
mother,  revolted  against  the  king  together  with  Artyphius 
the  son  of  Megabyzus.  Artasyras  was  sent  against  them,  and, 
having  been  defeated  in  two  battles,  gained  the  victory  in 
a  third,  after  he  had  bribed  the  Greeks,  who  were  with 
Artyphius,  so  that  only  three  Milesians  remained  faithful  to 
him.  At  length  Artyphius,  finding  that  Arsites  did  not 
appear,  surrendered  to  the  king,  after  Artasyras  had  solemnly 

^  Kirapis,  the  citaris,  cidaris,  or  tiara. 

2  Valerius  Maximus  (ix.  2.  ext.  6)  thus  describes  this  punishment. 
"He  (Ochus)  filled  an  enclosure  surrounded  by  high  walls  with  ashes; 
a  beam  projected  over  it,  on  which  he  placed  his  victims,  having  first 
given  them  plenty  to  eat  and  drink  ;  then,  overcome  by  sleep,  they  fell 
from  it  into  the  treacherous  heap  below." 

'^  In  modern  Persian  the  sun  is  /i/iur,  in  Zend  Hware. 


io6  CTESIAS 

promised  him  that  his  life  should  be  spared.  The  king  was 
anxious  to  put  Artyphius  to  death,  but  Parysatis  advised  him 
not  to  do  so  at  once,  in  order  to  deceive  Arsites  and  induce 
him  also  to  submit ;  when  both  had  surrendered,  she  said 
they  could  both  be  put  to  death.  The  plan  succeeded, 
Artyphius  and  Arsites  surrendered,  and  were  thrown  into  the 
ashes.  The  king  wished  to  pardon  Arsites,  but  Parysatis  by 
her  importunity  persuaded  him  to  put  him  to  death.  Phar- 
nacyas,  who  had  assisted  Secydianus  to  kill  Xerxes,  was  stoned 
to  death.  Menostanes  was  also  arrested  and  condemned,  but 
anticipated  his  fate  by  suicide. 

Pissuthnes  also  revolted,  and  Tissaphernes,  Spithradates, 
and  Parmises  were  sent  against  him.  Pissuthnes  set  out  to 
meet  them  with  Lycon  the  Athenian  and  a  body  of  Greeks, 
who  were  bribed  by  the  king's  generals  to  desert  him. 
Pissuthnes  then  surrendered,  and,  after  having  received  assur- 
ances that  his  life  should  be  spared,  accompanied  Tissaphernes 
to  the  court.  But  the  king  ordered  him  to  be  thrown  into 
the  ashes  and  gave  his  satrapy  to  Tissaphernes.  Lycon  also 
received  several  towns  and  districts  as  the  reward  of  his 
treachery. 

Artoxares  the  eunuch,  who  had  great  influence  with  the 
king,  desiring  to  obtain  possession  of  the  throne  himself, 
plotted  against  his  master.  He  ordered  his  wife  to  make 
him  a  false  beard  and  moustache,  that  he  might  look  like 
a  man.  His  wife,  however,  betrayed  him ;  he  was  seized, 
handed  over  to  Parysatis,  and  put  to  death.  Arsaces  the 
king's  son,  who  afterwards  changed  his  name  to  Artoxerxes, 
married  Statira,  daughter  of  Idernes,  whose  son  Teritukhmes, 
who  had  been  appointed  to  his  father's  satrapy  after  his  death, 
married  the  king's  daughter  Amestris.  Teritukhmes  had  a 
half-sister  Roxana,  of  great  beauty  and  very  skilful  in  bending 
the  bow  and  hurling  the  spear.  Teritukhmes  having  fallen  in 
love  with  her  and  conceived  a  hatred  of  his  wife  Amestris, 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  latter,  resolved  to  put  her  into 
a  sack,  where  she  was  to  be  stabbed  to  death  by  300  accom- 
plices, with  whom  he  had  entered  into  a  conspiracy  to  raise 
a  revolt.  But  a  certain  Udiastes,  who  had  great  influence 
with  Teritukhmes,  having  received  letters  from  the  king 
promising  to  reward  him  generously  if  he  could  save  his 
daughter,  attacked  and  murdered  Teritukhmes,  who  couragQ- 


CTESIAS  107 

ously  defended  himself  and  slew  (it  is  said)  thirty- seven  of -his 
assailants. 

Mitradates,^  the  son  of  Udiastes,  the  armour-bearer  of 
Teritukhmes,  took  no  part  in  this  affair,  and  when  he  learnt 
what  had  happened,  he  cursed  his  father  and  seized  the  city 
of  Zaris  to  hand  over  to  the  son  of  Teritukhmes.  Pary satis 
ordered  the  mother  of  Teritukhmes,  his  brothers  Mitrostes 
and  Helicus,  and  his  sisters  except  Statira  to  be  put  to  death. 
Roxana  was  hewn  in  pieces  alive.  The  king  told  his  wife 
Parysatis  to  inflict  the  same  punishment  upon  the  wife  of 
his  son  Arsaces.  But  Arsaces  by  his  tears  and  lamentations 
appeased  the  wrath  of  his  father  and  mother.  Parysatis  having 
relented,  Ochus  spared  Statira's  life,  but  at  the  same  time 
told  Parysatis  that  she  would  one  day  greatly  regret  it. 

In  the  nineteenth  book  the  author  relates  how  Ochus 
Dariaeus  fell  sick  and  died  at  Babylon,  having  reigned  thirty- 
five  years.  Arsaces,  who  succeeded  him,  changed  his  name 
to  Artoxerxes.  Udiastes  had  his  tongue  cut  out  and  torn  out 
by  the  roots  behind;  and  so  he  died.  His  son  Mitradates 
was  appointed  to  his  satrapy.  This  was  due  to  the  instigation 
of  Statira,  whereat  Parysatis  was  greatly  aggrieved.  Cyrus, 
being  accused  by  Tissaphernes  of  designs  on  the  life  of  his 
brother  Artoxerxes,  took  refuge  with  his  mother,  by  whose 
intervention  he  was  cleared  of  the  charge.  Disgraced  by  his 
brother,  he  retired  to  his  satrapy  and  laid  his  plans  for  revolt. 
Satibarzanes  accused  Orontes  of  an  intrigue  with  Parysatis, 
although  her  conduct  was  irreproachable ;  Orontes  was  put  to 
death,  and  his  mother  was  greatly  enraged  against  the  king, 
because  Parysatis  had  poisoned  the  son  of  Teritukhmes. 
The  author  also  mentions  him  who  cremated  his  father  contrary 
to  the  law,  Hellanicus  and  Herodotus  being  thus  convicted  of 
falsehood.^ 

Cyrus  having  revolted  against  his  brother^  collected  an 
army  composed  of  both  Greeks  and  barbarians.  Clearchus 
was  in  command  of  the  Greeks;  Syennesis,  king  of  Cilicia, 
assisted  both  Cyrus  and  Artoxerxes.     The  author  then  reports 

^  Ionic  form  of  Mithradates. 

2  The  excessive  brevity  of  Photius's  abstract  makes  it  uncertain  what  the 
allusion  is,  and  how  Hellanicus  and  Herodotus  are  convicted  of  falsehood. 
Perhaps  there  is  a  reference  to  the  statement  of  Herodotus  that  Croesus 
was  burnt  on  the  funeral  pile. 

'  The  expedition  forms  the  subject  of  Xenophon's  Anabasis, 


io8  CTESIAS 

the  speeches  of  the  two  princes  to  their  troops.  Clearchus  the 
Spartan,  who  was  in  command  of  the  Greeks,  and  Menon  the 
Thessahan,  who  accompanied  Cyrus,  were  always  at  variance, 
because  Cyrus  took  the  advice  of  Clearchus  in  everything, 
while  Menon  was  disregarded.  Large  numbers  deserted  from 
Artoxerxes  to  Cyrus,  none  from  Cyrus  to  Artoxerxes.  For  this 
reason  Artabarius,  who  meditated  desertion,  was  accused  and 
thrown  into  the  ashes.  Cyrus  attacked  the  king's  army  and 
gained  the  victory,  but  lost  his  life  by  neglecting  the  advice  of 
Clearchus.  His  body  was  mutilated  by  Artoxerxes,  who  ordered 
his  head  and  the  hand  with  which  he  had  struck  him  to  be 
cut  off,  and  carried  them  about  in  triumph.  Clearchus  the 
Spartan  withdrew  during  the  night  with  his  Greeks,  and  after 
he  had  seized  one  of  the  cities  belonging  to  Parysatis,  the  king 
made  peace  with  him. 

Parysatis  set  out  for  Babylon,  mourning  for  the  death  of 
Cyrus,  and  having  with  difficulty  recovered  his  head  and  hand 
sent  them  to  Susa  for  burial.  It  was  Bagapates  who  had  cut 
off  his  head  by  order  of  Artoxerxes.  Parysatis,  when  playing 
at  dice  with  the  king,  won  the  game  and  Bagapates  as  the 
prize,  and  afterwards  had  him  flayed  alive  and  crucified.  At 
length  she  was  persuaded  by  the  entreaties  of  Artoxerxes  to 
give  up  mourning  for  her  son.  The  king  rewarded  the  soldier 
who  brought  him  Cyrus's  cap,  and  the  Carian  who  was  sup- 
posed to  have  wounded  him,  whom  Parysatis  afterwards  tortured 
and  put  to  death.  Mitradates  having  boasted  at  table  of 
having  killed  Cyrus,  Parysatis  demanded  that  he  should  be 
given  up  to  her,  and  having  got  him  into  her  hands,  put  him 
to  death  with  great  cruelty.  Such  is  the  contents  of  the 
nineteenth  and  twentieth  books. 

The  twenty-first,  twenty-second,  and  twenty-third  books 
conclude  the  history.  Tissaphernes  began  to  plot  against  the 
Greeks,  with  the  assistance  of  Menon  the  Thessalian,  whom 
he  had  won  over.  In  this  manner,  by  cunning  and  solemn 
promises,  he  got  Clearchus  and  the  other  generals  in  his 
power,  although  Clearchus  suspected  and  was  on  his  guard 
against  treachery  and  endeavoured  to  avert  it ;  but  the  soldiers, 
being  deceived  by  the  words  of  Menon,  compelled  the  un- 
willing Clearchus  to  visit  Tissaphernes.  Proxenus  the  Boeotian, 
who  had  been  already  deceived,  also  advised  him  to  go. 
Clearchus   and   the   other   generals   were   sent   in   chains   to 


CTESIAS  109 

Artoxerxes  at  Babylon,  where  all  the  people  flocked  to  see 
Clearchus.  Ctesias  himself,  Parysatis's  physician,  bestowed 
every  attention  upon  Clearchus  while  he  was  in  prison  and 
did  all  he  could  to  mitigate  his  lot.  Parysatis  would  have 
given  him  his  freedom  and  let  him  go,  had  not  Statira  per- 
suaded the  king  to  put  him  to  death.  After  his  execution,  a 
marvellous  thing  happened.  A  strong  wind  sprang  up  and 
heaped  a  quantity  of  earth  upon  his  body,  which  formed  a 
natural  tomb.  The  other  Greeks  who  had  been  sent  with  him 
were  also  put  to  death,  with  the  exception  of  Menon. 

The  author  next  tells  us  of  the  insults  heaped  by  Parysatis 
on  Statira,  and  the  poisoning  of  Statira,  which  was  brought 
about  in  the  following  manner,  although  she  had  long  been 
on  her  guard  against  this  kind  of  death.  A  table  knife  was 
smeared  with  poison  on  one  side.  One  of  the  little  birds, 
about  the  size  of  an  egg,  called  rhyndace,  was  cut  in  half  by 
Parysatis,  who  herself  took  and  ate  the  portion  which  had  not 
been  touched  by  the  poison,  at  the  same  time  offering  Statira 
the  poisoned  half.  Statira,  seeing  that  Parysatis  was  eating 
her  own  portion,  had  no  suspicions,  and  took  the  fatal  poison. 
The  king,  enraged  with  his  mother,  ordered  her  eunuchs  to  be 
seized  and  tortured,  including  her  chief  confidant  Ginge.  The 
latter,  being  accused  and  brought  to  trial,  was  acquitted  by 
the  judges,  but  the  king  condemned  her  and  ordered  her  to 
be  tortured  and  put  to  death,  which  caused  a  lasting  quarrel 
between  mother  and  son. 

The  tomb  of  Clearchus,  eight  years  afterwards,  was  found 
covered  with  palm-trees,  which  Parysatis  had  had  secretly 
planted  by  her  eunuchs. 

The  author  next  states  the  cause  of  the  quarrel  of  Artoxerxes 
with  Evagoras,  king  of  Salamis.^  The  messengers  sent  by 
Evagoras  to  Ctesias  about  the  receiving  of  letters  from  Abuletes. 
The  letter  of  Ctesias  to  Evagoras  concerning  reconciliation 
with  Anaxagoras  prince  of  the  Cyprians.  The  return  of  the 
messengers  of  Evagoras  to  Cyprus  and  the  delivery  of  the 
letters  from  Ctesias  to  Evagoras.  The  speech  of  Conon  to 
Evagoras  about  visiting  the  king ;  and  the  letter  of  Evagoras 
on  the  honours  he  had  received  from  him.  The  letter  of 
Conon  to  Ctesias,  the  agreement  of  Evagoras  to  pay  tribute 

*  In  Cyprus.  The  orator  Isocrates  composed  a  panegyric  on  this 
Evagoras. 


no  CTESIAS 

to  the  king,  and  the  giving  of  the  letters  to  Ctesias.  Speech 
of  Ctesias  to  the  king  about  Conon  and  the  letter  to  him. 
The  presents  sent  by  Evagoras  delivered  to  Satibarzanes ;  the 
arrival  of  the  messengers  in  Cyprus.  The  letters  of  Conon 
to  the  king  and  Ctesias,  The  detention  of  the  Spartan  ambas- 
sadors to  the  king.  Letter  from  the  king  to  Conon  and 
the  Spartans,  delivered  to  them  by  Ctesias  himself.  Conon 
appointed  commander  of  the  fleet  by  Pharnabazus. 

The  visit  of  Ctesias  to  Cnidus,  his  native  city,  and  to  Sparta. 
Proceedings  against  the  Spartan  ambassadors  at  Rhodes,  and  their 
acquittal.^  The  number  of  stations,  days,  and  parasangs  from 
Ephesus  to  Bactria  and  India.  The  work  concludes  with  a  list 
of  the  Assyrian  kings  from  Ninus  and  Semiramis  to  Artoxerxes. 
This  writer's  style  is  clear  and  very  simple,  which  makes  the 
work  agreeable  to  read.  He  uses  the  Ionic  dialect,  not  through- 
out, as  Herodotus  does,  but  only  in  certain  expressions,  nor  does 
he,  like  Herodotus,  interrupt  the  thread  of  his  narrative  by 
ill-timed  digressions.  Although  he  reprorches  Herodotus  for 
his  old  wives'  tales,  he  is  not  free  from  the  same  defect, 
especially  in  his  account  of  India.  The  charm  of  his  history 
chiefly  consists  in  his  manner  of  relating  events,  which  is  strong 
in  the  emotional  and  unexpected,  and  in  his  varied  use  of 
mythical  embellishment.  The  style  is  more  careless  than  it 
should  be,  and  the  phraseology  often  descends  to  the  common- 
place, whereas  that  of  Herodotus,  both  in  this  and  other 
respects  as  far  as  vigour  and  art  are  concerned,  is  the  model 
representative  of  the  Ionic  dialect. 

History  of  India. '^ 

Also  read  the  same  author's  History  of  India^  in  one  book, 
in  which  he  employs  the  Ionic  dialect  more  frequently.  In 
regard  to  the  river  Indus,  he  says  that,  where  it  is  narrowest,  it 
is  forty,  where  it  is  widest,  two  hundred  stades  broad. ^  He 
declares  that  the  population  of  India  is  almost  greater  than 
that  of  the  whole  world.     He  also  mentions  a  worm  found  in 

^  The  punctuation  and  meaning  are  obscure. 

^  See  translation  by  J.  W.  McCrindle  with  Introduction  and  Notes 
(1882),  to  which  the  present  translator  desires  to  acknowledge  his  ob- 
ligations; H.  H.  Wilson,  "Notes  on  the  Indica  of  Ctesias"  (Ashmolean 
Society  Transactions,  i-xi.  1 838). 

'^  A  stade  is  about  an  English  furlong. 


CTESIAS 


III 


this  river,  the  only  living  creature  which  breeds  there.  Beyond 
India  there  are  no  countries  inhabited  by  men.  It  never  rains 
there,  the  country  being  watered  by  the  river.  He  says  of  the 
pat^tarba,'^  a  kind  of  seal-stone,  that  477  seal-stones  and  other 
precious  stones,  belonging  to  a  Bactrian  merchant,  which  had 
been  thrown  into  the  river,  were  drawn  up  from  the  bottom,  all 
clinging  together,  by  this  stone.  ^ 

He  also  speaks  of  elephants  which  knock  down  walls,  of 
little  ^  apes  with  tails  four  cubits  long,  and  of  cocks  of  very  large 
size  ;  of  the  parrot  about  as  large  as  a  hawk,  which  has  a 
human  tongue  and  voice,  a  dark-red  beak,  a  black  beard,  and 
blue  feathers  up  to  the  neck,  which  is  red  like  cinnabar.^  It 
speaks  Indian  like  a  native,  and  if  taught  Greek,  speaks  Greek. 

He  next  mentions  a  fountain  which  is  filled  every  year  with 
liquid  gold,  from  which  a  hundred  pitcherfuls  are  drawn. 
These  pitchers  have  to  be  made  of  earth,  since  the  gold 
when  drawn  off  becomes  solid,  and  it  is  necessary  to  break 
the  vessel  in  order  to  get  it  out.  The  fountain  is  square, 
sixteen  cubits  in  circumference,  and  a  fathom  deep.  The 
gold  in  each  pitcher  weighs  a  talent.  At  the  bottom  of  the 
fountain  there  is  iron,  and  the  author  says  that  he  possessed 
two  swords  made  from  it,  one  given  him  by  the  king,  the 
other  by  his  mother,  Parysatis.  If  this  iron  *  be  fixed  in  the 
ground,  it  keeps  off  clouds  and  hail  and  hurricanes  Ctesias 
declares  that  the  king  twice  proved  its  efficacy  and  that  he 
himself  was  a  witness  to  it. 

The  Indian  dogs  are  very  large  and  even  attack  lions. 
There  are  great  mountains,  from  which  are  dug  sardonyx, 
onyx,  and  other  seal-stones.  It  is  intensely  hot  and  the  sun 
appears  ten  times  larger  than  in  other  countries ;  large  numbers 
of  people  are  suffocated  by  the  heat.  The  sea  is  as  large  as 
that  of  Greece ;  it  is  so  hot  on  the  surface  and  to  a  depth  of 
four  fingers  that  fish  cannot  live  near  it,  but  keep  on  the 
bottom. 

The  river  Indus  flows  across  plains  and  between  mountains, 
where  the  so-called  Indian  reed  grows.     It  is  so  thick  that  two 

^  Supposed  to  be  the  hydrophane  (also  called  oculus  rnundt,  eye  of  the 
world),  a  kind  of  opal  which  absorbs  water  on  immersion  and  exhibits  a 
changing  play  of  colours. 

-  Rather  read  /xaKpuiu  (large)  for  p.iKpu>v  (small). 

^  The  text  is  corrupt  here.  *  The  magnet  may  be  referred  to. 


112  CTESIAS 

men  can  hardly  get  their  arms  round  it,  and  as  tall  as  the  mast 
of  a  merchant-ship  of  largest  tonnage.  Some  are  larger,  some 
smaller,  as  is  natural  considering  the  size  of  the  mountain.  Of 
these  reeds  some  are  male,  others  female.  The  male  has  no 
pith  and  is  very  strong,  but  the  female  has. 

The  martikhora  is  an  animal  found  in  this  country.  It  has  a 
face  like  a  man's,  a  skin  red  as  cinnabar,  and  is  as  large  as  a 
lion.  It  has  three  rows  of  teeth,  ears  and  light-blue  eyes  like 
those  of  a  man  ;  its  tail  is  like  that  of  a  land  scorpion,  contain- 
ing a  sting  more  than  a  cubit  long  at  the  end.  It  has  other 
stings  on  each  side  of  its  tail  and  one  on  the  top  of  its  head, 
like  the  scorpion,  with  which  it  inflicts  a  wound  that  is  always 
fatal.  If  it  is  attacked  from  a  distance,  it  sets  up  its  tail  in 
front  and  discharges  its  stings  as  if  from  a  bow  ;  if  attacked 
from  behind,  it  straightens  it  out  and  launches  its  stings  in  a 
direct  line  to  the  distance  of  a  hundred  feet.  The  wound  in- 
flicted is  fatal  to  all  animals  except  the  elephant.  The  stings  are 
about  a  foot  long  and  about  as  thick  as  a  small  rush.  The  marti- 
khora'^ is  called  in  Greek  anthropophagos  (man-eater),  because, 
although  it  preys  upon  other  animals,  it  kills  and  devours  a 
greater  number  of  human  beings.  It  fights  with  both  its  claws 
and  stings,  which,  according  to  Ctesias,  grow  again  after  they 
have  been  discharged.  There  is  a  great  number  of  these 
animals  in  India,  which  are  hunted  and  killed  with  spears  or 
arrows  by  natives  mounted  on  elephants. 

Observing  that  the  Indians  are  extremely  just,  Ctesias  goes 
on  to  describe  their  manners  and  customs.  He  mentions  a 
sacred  spot  in  an  uninhabited  district,  which  they  honour  under 
the  name  of  the  Sun  and  the  Moon.  It  is  a  fifteen  days' 
journey  from  mount  Sardo.^  Here  the  Sun  is  always  cool  for  , 
thirty-five  days  in  the  year,  so  that  his  votaries  may  attend  his 
feast  and  after  its  celebration  may  return  home  without  being 
scorched.  In  India  there  is  neither  thunder,  lightning,  nor 
rain,  but  winds  and  hurricanes,  which  carry  along  everything 
that  comes  in  their  way,  are  frequent.  The  sun,  after  rising,  is 
cool  for  half  the  day,  but  for  the  remainder  is  excessively  hot  in 
most  parts  of  the  country.  It  is.  not  the  heat  of  the  sun  that 
makes  the  Indians  swarthy ;  they  are  so  naturally.     Some  of 

^  Persian  mardikhora. 

*  It  is  not  clear  whether  Sardo  is  merely  a  proper  name  or  means  the 
"  mountain  of  the  sardo''''  (a  precious  stone). 


CTESIAS  113 

them,  both  men  and  women,  are  very  fair,  though  they  are 
fewer  in  number.  Ctesias  says  that  he  himself  saw  five  white 
men  and  two  white  women.  In  support  of  his  statement  that 
the  sun  cools  the  air  for  thirty-five  days,  he  mentions  that  the 
fire  which  streams  from  Aetna  does  no  damage  to  the  middle 
of  the  country  through  which  it  passes,  because  it  is  the  abode 
of  just  men,  but  destroys  the  rest.^  In  the  island  of  Zacynthus 
there  are  fountains  full  of  fish,  out  of  which  pitch  is  taken.  In 
the  island  of  Naxos  there  is  a  fountain  from  which  sometimes 
flows  a  wine  of  very  agreeable  flavour.  The  water  of  the  river 
Phasis,  if  allowed  to  stand  a  day  and  a  night  in  a  vessel, 
becomes  a  most  delicious  wine.  Near  Phaselis  in  Lycia  there 
is  a  fire  which  never  goes  out,  but  burns  on  a  rock  both  night 
and  day.  It  cannot  be  extinguished  by  water,  which  rather 
increases  the  flame,  but  only  by  throwing  earth  upon  it. 

In  the  middle  of  India  there  are  black  men,  called  Pygmies,^ 
who  speak  the  same  language  as  the  other  inhabitants  of  the 
country.  They  are  very  short,  the  tallest  being  only  two  cubits 
in  height,  most  of  them  only  one  and  a  half.  Their  hair  is 
very  long,  going  down  to  the  knees  and  even  lower,  and  their 
beards  are  larger  than  those  of  any  other  men.  When  their 
beards  are  full  grown  they  leave  off  wearing  clothes  and  let  the 
hair  of  their  head  fall  down  behind  far  below  the  knees,  while 
their  beard  trails  down  to  the  feet  in  front.  When  their  body 
is  thus  entirely  covered  with  hair  they  fasten  it  round  them 
with  a  girdle,  so  that  it  serves  them  for  clothes.  They  are 
snubnosed  and  ugly.  Their  sheep  are  no  bigger  than  lambs, 
their  oxen,  asses,  horses,  mules,  and  other  beasts  of  burden 
about  the  size  of  rams.  Being  very  skilful  archers,  3000  of 
them  attend  on  the  king  of  India.  They  are  very  just  and 
have  the  same  laws  as  the  Indians.  They  hunt  the  hare  and 
the  fox,  not  with  dogs,  but  with  ravens,  kites,  crows,  and  eagles. 

There  is  a  lake  800  stades  in  circumference,  the  surface 
of  which,  when  not  ruffled  by  the  wind,  is  covered  with 
floating  oil.  Sailing  over  it  in  little  boats,  they  ladle  out  the 
oil  with  little  vessels  and  keep  it  for  use.     They  also  use  oil  of 

*  During  an  eruption,  two  brothers,  Amphinomus  and  Anapus  of  Catana, 
carried  oft  their  parents  on  their  shoulders,  and  were  untouched  by  the  lava. 
The  spot  where  this  took  place  was  afterwards  called  "the  land  of  the 
pious." 

^  The  name  means  "  a  fist  long." 

VOL.  I.  H 


114  CTESIAS 

sesamum  and  nut-oil,  but  the  oil  from  the  lake  is  best.     The 
lake  also  abounds  in  fish. 

The  country  produces  much  silver  and  there  are  numerous 
silver  mines,  not  very  deep,  but  those  of  Bactria  are  said  to  be 
deeper.  There  is  also  gold,  not  found  in  rivers  and  washed, 
as  in  the  river  Pactolus,  but  in  many  large  mountains  which 
are  inhabited  by  griffins.  These  are  four-footed  birds  as  large 
as  a  wolf,  their  legs  and  claws  resembling  those  of  a  lion ;  their 
breast  feathers  are  red,  those  of  the  rest  of  the  body  black. 
Although  there  is  abundance  of  gold  in  the  mountains,  it 
is  difficult  to  get  it  because  of  these  birds. 

The  Indian  sheep  and  goats  are  larger  than  asses,  and  as  a 
rule  have  four  young  ones,  sometimes  six,  at  a  time.  There 
are  neither  tame  nor  wild  pigs.  The  palm  trees  and  dates  are 
three  times  as  large  as  those  of  Babylon.  There  is  a  river  of 
honey  that  flows  from  a  rock. 

The  author  speaks  at  length  of  the  Indians'  love  of  justice, 
their  loyalty  to  their  kings  and  their  contempt  of  death.  He 
also  mentions  a  fountain,  the  water  from  which,  when  drawn 
off,  thickens  like  cheese.  If  three  obols'  weight  of  this  thick 
mass  be  crushed,  mixed  with  water,  and  given  to  any  one  to 
drink,  he  reveals  everything  that  he  has  ever  done,  being  in 
a  state  of  frenzy  and  delirium  the  whole  day.  The  king  makes 
use  of  this  test  when  he  desires  to  discover  the  truth  about  an 
accused  person.  If  he  confesses,  he  is  ordered  to  starve 
himself  to  death ;    if  he  reveals  nothing,  he  is  acquitted. 

The  Indians  are  not  subject  to  headache,  ophthalmia,  or 
even  toothache ;  to  ulcers  on  the  mouth,  or  sores  in  any  other 
part  of  the  body.  They  live  120,  130,  150,  and  some  even  200 
years. 

There  is  a  serpent  a  span  in  length,  of  a  most  beautiful 
purple  colour,  with  a  very  white  head,  and  without  teeth.  It 
is  caught  on  the  burning  mountains,  from  which  the  sardonyx 
is  dug.  It  does  not  sting,  but  its  vomit  rots  the  place  where 
it  falls.  If  it  is  hung  up  by  the  tail  it  discharges  two  kinds  of 
poison,  one  yellow  like  amber,  when  it  is  alive,  the  other  black, 
when  it  is  dead.  If  one  drinks  only  as  much  of  the  former  as 
a  grain  of  sesamum  dissolved  in  water,  his  brain  runs  out 
through  his  nose  and  he  dies  immediately ;  if  the  other  poison 
is  administered,  it  brings  on  consumption,  which  does  not 
prove  fatal  for  at  least  a  year. 


CTESIAS 


"5 


There  is  a  bird  called  dikaerum  (meaning  in  Greek  "just"), 
the  size  of  a  partridge's  egg.  It  buries  its  excrement  in  the 
ground  in  order  to  hide  it.  If  any  one  finds  it  and  takes  only  a 
morsel  of  it  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  sesamum  in  the  morn- 
ing, he  is  overcome  by  sleep,  loses  consciousness,  and  dies  at 
sunset. 

There  is  also  a  tree  called  parebiwi^  about  the  size  of  an 
olive,  which  is  only  found  in  the  royal  gardens.  It  bears 
neither  flowers  nor  fruit,  and  has  only  fifteen  very  stout  roots, 
the  smallest  of  which  is  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm.  If  a  piece  of 
this  root,  about  a  span  in  length,  be  put  near  any  body  of 
matter,  gold,  silver,  brass,  stones,  in  fact,-  everything  except 
amber,  it  attracts  it ;  if  a  cubit's  length  of  it  be  used,  it  attracts 
lambs  and  birds,  the  latter  being  generally  caught  in  this  way. 
If  you  wish  to  solidify  a  gallon  of  water,  you  need  only  throw 
in  a  piece  of  the  root  the  weight  of  an  obol ;  the  same  with 
wine,  which  can  be  handled  like  wax,  although  on  the  next  day 
it  becomes  liquid  again.  The  root  is  also  used  as  a  remedy  for 
those  suffering  from  bowel  complaints. 

There  is  a  river  that  flows  through  India,  not  large,  but 
about  two  stades  broad.  It  is  called  Hyparchus^  in  Indian, 
meaning  in  Greek  "bestowing  all  blessings."  During  thirty 
days  in  the  year  it  brings  down  amber.  It  is  said  that  in  the 
mountains  there  are  trees  on  the  banks  of  the  river  where 
it  passes  through,  which  at  a  certain  season  of  the  year  shed 
tears  like  the  almond,  fir,  or  any  other  tree,  especially  during 
these  thirty  days.  These  tears  drop  into  the  river  and  become 
hard.  This  tree  is  called  in  Indian  Sipfakhora,^  meaning  in 
Greek  "  sweet,"  and  from  it  the  inhabitants  gather  amber.  It 
also  bears  fruit  in  clusters  like  grapes,  the  stones  of  which  are 
as  large  as  the  nuts  of  Pontus. 

On  these  mountains  there  live  men  with  the  head  of  a  dog, 
whose  clothing  is  the  skin  of  wild  beasts.  They  speak  no 
language,  but  bark  like  dogs,  and  in  this  manner  make  them- 
selves understood  by  each  other.  Their  teeth  are  larger  than 
those  of  dogs,  their  nails  like  those  of  these  animals,  but  longer 
and  rounder.  They  inhabit  the  mountains  as  far  as  the  river 
Indus.  Their  complexion  is  swarthy.  They  are  extremely 
just,  like  the  rest  of  the  Indians  with  whom  they  associate. 

^  Persian  aver-khosh  (**  bringing  good  "). 
^  Persian  ^-^z/?^^-('/^<?r  ("agreeable  to  eat"). 


ii6  CTESIAS 

They  understand  the  Indian  language  but  are  unable  to 
converse,  only  barking  or  making  signs  with  their  hands  and 
fingers  by  way  of  reply,  like  the  deaf  and  dumb.  They  are 
called  by  the  Indians  Calystrii,  in  Greek  Cyriocephali  ("  dog- 
headed  ").  [They  live  on  raw  meat.]  They  number  about 
120,000. 

Near  the  sources  of  this  river  ^  grows  a  purple  flower,  from 
which  is  obtained  a  purple  dye,  as  good  in  quaHty  as  the  Greek 
and  of  an  even  more  brilliant  hue.  In  the  same  district  there 
is  an  animal  about  the  size  of  a  beetle,  red  as  cinnabar,  with 
very  long  feet,  and  a  body  as  soft  as  that  of  a  worm.  It  breeds 
on  the  trees  which  produce  amber,  eats  their  fruit  and  kills 
them,  as  the  woodlouse  destroys  the  vines  in  Greece.  The 
Indians  crush  these  insects  and  use  them  for  dyeing  their  robes 
and  tunics  and  anything  else  they  wish.^  The  dye  is  superior 
to  the  Persian. 

The  Cytiocephali  living  on  the  mountains  do  not  practise  any 
trade  but  live  by  hunting.  When  they  have  killed  an  animal 
they  roast  it  in  the  sun.  They  also  rear  numbers  of  sheep, 
goats,  and  asses,  drinking  the  milk  of  the  sheep  and  whey  made 
from  it.  They  eat  the  fruit  of  the  Siptakhora,  whence  amber  is 
procured,  since  it  is  sweet.  They  also  dry  it  and  keep  it  in 
baskets,  as  the  Greeks  keep  their  dried  grapes.  They  make 
rafts  which  they  load  with  this  fruit  together  with  well-cleaned 
purple  flowers  and  260  talents  of  amber,  with  the  same  quantity 
of  the  purple  dye,  and  1000  additional  talents  of  amber,  which 
they  send  annually  to  the  king  of  India.  They  exchange  the 
rest  for  bread,  flour,  and  cotton  stuffs  with  the  Indians,  from 
whom  they  also  buy  swords  for  hunting  wild  beasts,  bows,  and 
arrows,  being  very  skilful  in  drawing  the  bow  and  hurling  the 
spear.  They  cannot  be  defeated  in  war,  since  they  inhabit 
lofty  and  inaccessible  mountains.  Every  five  years  the  king 
sends  them  a  present  of  300,000  bows,  as  many  spears,  120,000 
shields,  and  50,000  swords. 

They  do  not  live  in  houses,  but  in  caves.  They  set  out  for 
the  chase  with  bows  and  spears,  and  as  they  are  very  swift  of 
foot,  they  pursue  and  soon  overtake  their  quarry.  The  women 
have  a  bath  once  a  month,  the  men  do  not  have  a  bath  at  all, 
but  only  wash  their  hands.  They  anoint  themselves  three  times 
a  month  with  oil  made  from  milk  and  wipe  themselves  with 

^  The  Hyparchus.  ^  The  cochineal  insect  is  meant. 


CTESIAS  117 

skins.  The  clothes  of  men  and  women  ahke  are  not  skins  with 
the  hair  on,  but  skins  tanned  and  very  fine.  The  richest  wear 
hnen  clothes,  but  they  are  few  in  number.  They  have  no  beds, 
but  sleep  on  leaves  or  grass.  He  who  possesses  the  greatest 
number  of  sheep  is  considered  the  richest,  and  so  in  regard  to 
their  other  possessions.  All,  both  men  and  women,  have  tails 
above  their  hips,  like  dogs,  but  longer  and  more  hairy.  They 
are  just,  and  live  longer  than  any  other  men,  170,  sometimes 
200  years. 

It  is  said  that  beyond  their  country,  above  the  sources  of  the 
river,  there  are  other  men,  black  like  the  rest  of  the  Indians. 
They  do  no  work,  do  not  eat  grain  nor  drink  water,  but  rear 
large  numbers  of  cattle,  cows,  goats,  and  sheep,  whose  milk  is 
their  only  food.  When  they  drink  milk  in  the  morning  and 
then  again  at  mid-day,  they  eat  a  sweet  root  which  prevents  the 
milk  from  curdling  in  the  stomach,  and  at  night  makes  them 
vomit  all  they  have  taken  without  any  difficulty. 

In  India  there  are  wild  asses  ^  as  large  as  horses,  or  even 
larger.  Their  body  is  white,  their  head  dark  red,  their  eyes 
bluish,  and  they  have  a  horn  in  their  forehead  about  a  cubit  in 
length.  The  lower  part  of  the  horn,  for  about  two  palms 
distance  from  the  forehead,  is  quite  white,  the  middle  is  black, 
the  upper  part,  which  terminates  in  a  point,  is  a  very  flaming 
red.  Those  who  drink  out  of  cups  made  from  it  are  prool 
against  convulsions,  epilepsy,  and  even  poison,  provided  that 
before  or  after  having  taken  it  they  drink  some  wine  or  water 
or  other  liquid  out  of  these  cups.  The  domestic  and  wild 
asses  of  other  countries  and  all  other  solid-hoofed  animals  have 
neither  huckle-bones  nor  gall-bladder,  whereas  the  Indian  asses 
have  both.  Their  huckle-bone  is  the  most  beautiful  that  I 
have  seen,  like  that  of  the  ox  in  size  and  appearance ;  it  is  as 
heavy  as  lead  and  of  the  colour  of  cinnabar  all  through.  These 
animals  are  very  strong  and  swift ;  neither  the  horse  nor  any 
other  animal  can  overtake  them.  At  first  they  run  slowly,  but 
the  longer  they  run  their  pace  increases  wonderfully,  and 
becomes  faster  and  faster.  There  is  only  one  way  of  catching 
them.  When  they  take  their  young  to  feed,  if  they  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  large  number  of  horsemen,  being  unwilling  to 
abandon  their  foals,  they  show  fight,  butt  with  their  horns,  kick, 

^  Perhaps  the  rhinoceros,   although  the  description   is   not   altogether 
suitable. 


irS  CTESIAS 

bite,  and  kill  many  men  and  horses.  They  are  at  last  taken, 
after  they  have  been  pierced  with  arrows  and  spears ;  for  it  is 
impossible  to  capture  them  alive.  Their  flesh  is  too  bitter  to 
eat,  and  they  are  only  hunted  for  the  sake  of  the  horns  and 
huckle-bones. 

In  the  river  Indus  a  worm  is  found  resembling  those  which 
are  usually  found  on  fig-trees.  Its  average  length  is  seven 
cubits,  though  some  are  longer,  others  shorter.  It  is  so  thick 
that  a  child  ten  years  old  could  hardly  put  his  arms  round  it. 
It  has  two  teeth,  one  in  the  upper  and  one  in  the  lower  jaw. 
Everything  it  seizes  with  these  teeth  it  devours.  By  day  it 
remains  in  the  mud  of  the  river,  but  at  night  it  comes  out, 
seizes  whatever  it  comes  across,  whether  ox  or  camel,  drags  it 
into  the  river,  and  devours  it  all  except  the  intestines.  It  is 
caught  with  a  large  hook  baited  with  a  lamb  or  kid  attached  by 
iron  chains.  After  it  has  been  caught,  it  is  hung  up  for  thirty 
days  with  vessels  placed  underneath,  into  which  as  much  oil 
from  the  body  drips  as  would  fill  ten  Attic  kotylae.^  At  the 
end  of  the  thirty  days,  the  worm  is  thrown  away,  the  vessels  of 
oil  are  sealed  and  taken  as  a  present  to  the  king  of  India,  who 
alone  is  allowed  to  use  it.  This  oil  sets  everything  alight — 
wood  or  animals — over  which  it  is  poured,  and  the  flame  can 
only  be  extinguished  by  throwing  a  quantity  of  thick  mud  on  it. 

There  are  trees  in  India  as  high  as  cedars  or  cypresses,  with 
leaves  like  those  of  the  palm-tree,  except  that  they  are  a  little 
broader  and  have  no  shoots.  They  flower  like  the  male  laurel, 
but  have  no  fruit.  The  tree  is  called  by  the  Indians  karpion^ 
by  the  Greeks  myrorodon  (unguent-rose) ;  it  is  not  common. 
Drops  of  oil  ooze  out  of  it,  which  are  wiped  off  with  wool  and 
then  squeezed  into  stone  alabaster  boxes.  The  oil  is  reddish, 
rather  thick,  and  so  fragrant  that  it  scents  the  air  to  a  distance 
of  five  stades.  Only  the  king  and  his  family  are  allowed  to 
use  it.  The  king  of  India  sent  some  to  the  king  of  Persia, 
and  Ctesias,  who  saw  it,  says  that  he  cannot  compare  the 
perfume  with  any  other. 

The  Indians  also  have  very  excellent  cheese  and  sweet  wine, 
both  of  which  Ctesias  tested  himself. 

There  is  a  square  fountain  in  India,  about  five  ells  in 
circumference.  The  water  is  in  a  rock,  about  three  cubits' 
depth  down,  and  the  water  itself  three  fathoms.     The  Indians 

1  About  five  pints. 


CTESIAS  119 

of  highest  rank — men,  women,  and  children — bathe  in  it  [not 
only  for  cleanliness,  but  as  a  preventive  of  disease].  They 
plunge  feet  foremost  into  the  water,  and  when  they  jump  into 
it,  it  throws  them  out  again  on  to  dry  land,  not  only  human 
beings,  but  every  animal,  living  or  dead,  in  fact,  everything  that 
is  thrown  into  it  except  iron,  silver,  gold,  and  copper,  which 
sink  to  the  bottom.  The  water  is  very  cold,  and  agreeable  to 
drink;  it  makes  a  loud  noise  like  that  of  water  boiling  in  a 
caldron.  It  cures  leprosy  and  scab.  In  Indian  it  is  called 
ballade^  and  in  Greek  ophelimc  (useful). 

In  the  mountains  where  the  Indian  reed  grows  there  dwells 
a  people  about  30,000  in  number.  Their  women  only  have 
children  once  in  their  life,  which  are  born  with  beautiful  teeth 
in  the  upper  and  lower  jaw.  Both  male  and  female  children 
have  white  hair  on  the  head  and  eyebrows.  Up  to  the  age  of 
thirty  the  men  have  white  hair  all  over  the  body ;  it  then 
begins  to  turn  black,  and  at  the  age  of  sixty  it  is  quite  black. 
Both  men  and  women  have  eight  fingers  and  eight  toes.  They 
are  very  warlike,  and  5000  of  them — bowmen  and  spearmen — 
accompany  the  king  of  India  on  his  military  expeditions. 
Their  ears  are  so  long  that  their  arms  are  covered  with  them 
as  far  as  the  elbow,  and  also  their  backs,  and  one  ear  touches 
the  other. 

[In  Aethiopia  there  is  an  animal  called  crocottas,^  vulgarly 
kynolykos  (dog-wolf),  of  amazing  strength.  It  is  said  to 
imitate  the  human  voice,  to  call  men  by  name  at  night,  and 
to  devour  those  who  approach  it.  It  is  as  brave  as  a  lion,  as 
swift  as  a  horse,  and  as  strong  as  a  bull.  It  cannot  be  over- 
come by  any  weapon  of  steel.  In  Chalcis  in  Euboea  there  are 
sheep  which  have  no  gall-bladder,  and  their  flesh  is  so  bitter 
that  even  the  dogs  refuse  to  eat  it.  They  also  say  that  beyond 
the  gates  of  Mauretania  the  rain  is  abundant  in  summer,  and 
that  it  is  scorching  hot  in  winter.  Among  the  Cyonians  there 
is  a  fountain  which  gives  out  oil  instead  of  water,  which  the 
people  use  in  all  their  food.  In  Metadrida  there  is  another 
fountain,  some  little  distance  from  the  sea,  the  flow  of  which  is 
so  violent  at  midnight  that  it  casts  up  on  land  fishes  in  such 
numbers  that  the  inhabitants,  unable  to  pick  them  up,  leave 
most  of  them  to  rot  on  the  ground.]  ^ 

Ctesias  relates  these  fables  as  perfect  truth,  adding  that  he 

^  The  jackal  or  hyena.  ^  This  passage  is  probably  not  by  Ctesias. 


120  HELIODORUS 

himself  had  seen  with  his  own  eyes  some  of  the  things  he 
describes,  and  had  been  informed  of  the  rest  by  eye-witnesses. 
He  says  that  he  has  omitted  many  far  more  marvellous  things, 
for  fear  that  those  who  had  not  seen  them  might  think  that  his 
account  was  utterly  untrustworthy. 

LXXIII 

Read  the  Aethiopica  of  Heliodorus.^  The  work  is  dramatic, 
and  the  style  employed  is  suited  to  the  subject,  being  full  of 
simplicity  and  charm.  The  narrative  is  diversified  by  actual, 
expected,  or  unexpected  incidents  that  appeal  to  the  feelings, 
by  strange  escapes  from  danger,  by  clear  and  pure  diction.  If, 
as  is  only  natural,  there  is  a  tendency  to  use  figures  of  speech, 
they  are  easy  to  understand,  and  vividly  illustrate  the  subject 
matter.  The  periods  are  symmetrical,  and  concisely  arranged 
with  a  view  to  brevity.  The  composition  in  other  respects 
corresponds  to  the  subject.  The  story  is  about  the  love  of  a 
man  and  a  woman,  and  shows  a  desire  for  the  strict  observance 
of  propriety. 

The  characters  are  Theagenes  and  Chariclea,  two  chaste 
lovers  who,  through  all  their  wanderings  and  frequent 
captivities,  keep  their  modesty  intact.  Their  names,  and  a 
brief  account  of  their  fortunes  and  sufferings,  are  given.  The 
Athenian  festival,  at  which  Chariclea  is  a  priestess  and 
Theagenes  a  competitor  in  the  stadium.  How  they  fall  in 
love  with  each  other  at  sight ;  Chariclea's  consequent  illness ; 
how  she  is  carried  off,  with  her  consent,  by  Theagenes  and 
Calasiris  from  the  house  of  her  reputed  father  Charicles. 
Voyage  to  Zacynthus,  during  which  the  captain  of  the  ship  is 
smitten  with  love  for  Chariclea ;  Calasiris  pretends  to  accept 
his  offer  of  marriage.     Chariclea  and  her  party  are  hospitably 

^  Heliodorus  of  Emesa  in  Syria,  belonging  to  a  family  of  the  priests  of 
the  Sun,  flourished  in  the  third  century  A.D.  This  view  is  supported  by  the 
mention  of  the  Blemmyes  (first  prominent  in  250),  traces  of  neo-Pytha- 
gorean  influence,  and  the  stress  laid  on  Sun-worship.  The  ecclesiastical 
historian  Socrates  wrongly  identifies  him  with  a  bishop  of  Tricca  in  the 
reign  of  Theodosius,  the  latter  probably  confused  with  Theodosius  the 
father  of  the  author  of  the  Aethiopica.  The  standard  work  on  the  Greek 
romance-writers  is  E.  Rohde,  Der  griechische  Roman  (1914) ;  see  also 
Blackwood' s  Magazine,  xliv.  (1892).  The  whole  work  is  preserved,  and  it 
would  be  difficult  to  understand  the  complicated  plot  from  Photius's 
abstract. 


HELIODORUS  121 

received  on  shore,  and  informed  by  the  fisherman  who  gives 
them  lodging  that  Trachinus,  the  captain  of  a  band  of  robbers, 
intends  to  carry  her  off.  The  flight  of  Calasiris  and  Chariclea, , 
the  pursuit  and  capture  of  the  ship  by  Trachinus.  He  falls  in 
love  with  Chariclea,  who  pretends  to  be  willing  to  marry  him. 
Calasiris  and  Theagenes,  pretending  to  be  her  father  and 
brother,  request  [that  they  may  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the 
vessel],  and  their  request  is  granted.  Storm  at  sea ;  their 
narrow  escape  from  shipwreck,  and  landing  on  the  coast  of 
Egypt.  Trachinus  speaks  of  his  intended  marriage  to  Chariclea. 
The  stratagem  of  her  supposed  father,  Calasiris,  and  arrange- 
ments for  the  wedding-feast.  Pelorus  is  persuaded  by  Calasiris 
that  Chariclea  is  in  love  with  him,  which  leads  to  a  quarrel 
between  Pelorus  and  Trachinus  about  her.  A  regular  battle 
takes  place,  in  which  many  of  the  pirates  are  slain  by  them- 
selves,^ and  several  by  Chariclea.  Her  grief  at  seeing  Theagenes 
covered  with  wounds.  Attack  by  Egyptian  brigands.  Their 
astonishment  at  the  sight  of  Chariclea,  whom  they  carry  off 
with  Theagenes  to  Thyamis,  the  captain  of  the  Bticoli^  as  the 
brigands  were  called.  He  also  falls  in  love  with  Chariclea, 
who  again  pretends  that  Theagenes  is  her  brother.  The  Biicoli 
are  in  turn  attacked  and  routed ;  flight  of  Thyamis  and 
Hermuthis,^  followed  by  Cnemon  ^  and  Theagenes.  Chariclea 
remains  iti  the  cave,^  at  the  entrance  of  which  lies  the  dead 
body  of  Thisbe,  the  sight  of  which  plunges  Theagenes  ^  into 
unbearable  grief,  until  Chariclea  addresses  him  from  the  cave. 
The  mystery  of  the  death  of  Thisbe;  grief  of  Hermuthis. 
Departure  of  Cnemon  and  Hermuthis,  Chariclea  and  Theagenes. 
Cnemon,  leaving  Hermuthis,  meets  Calasiris.  They  tell  each 
other  their  adventures.  Cnemon  tells  the  story  of  Thisbe  and 
Demaenete  his  stepmother,  his  banishment,  and  other  mis- 
fortunes ;  Calasiris  that  of  Charicles,  Chariclea,  and  Theagenes. 
Both  lament  their  misfortunes.  Then  Cnemon  imparts  the 
welcome  news  that  Theagenes  and  Chariclea  are  still  alive, 
since  he  himself  has  been  a  fellow-prisoner  with  them  in  the 

^  Some  taking  the  side  of  Trachinus,  others  that  of  Pelorus,  the  second 
in  command. 

^  The  name  of  a  robber  "shepherd-people"  inhabiting  the  N.W.  part  of 
the  Nile  delta  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Alexandria. 

3  Or  Thermuthis. 

^  A  young  Athenian  who  had  been  detained  by  the  brigands. 

^  To  which  she  had  been  carried  off.  ^  Thinking  it  was  Chariclea, 


122  HELIODORUS 

hands  of  Thyamis.  Nausicles,  with  whom  Calasiris  is  living, 
brings  in  Chariclea  in  the  name  of  Thisbe.  Hearing  this 
name,  Cnemon,  knowing  that  Thisbe  is  dead,  is  puzzled  ;  but 
his  perplexity  changes  to  joy  at  the  discovery  that  Chariclea  is 
alive.  First  search  for  Theagenes,  and  marriage  of  Cnemon 
and  Nausiclea.  Calasiris  sets  out  with  Chariclea  to  find 
Theagenes.  An  old  woman  is  found  lamenting  over  her  son 
who  has  fallen  in  battle,  and  addressing  him  with  the  aid  of 
magic  arts,  Calasiris  and  Chariclea  meanwhile  looking  on.  The 
old  woman  entreats  the  corpse  to  tell  her  whether  her  other 
son  will  return.  The  son,  cursing  his  mother  as  guilty  of 
violent  and  unlawful  acts,  informs  her  that  her  son  will  be 
killed,  but  that  she  will  die  before  him,  for  having  insulted  the 
dead.  Her  death  from  accidentally  falling  on  a  fragment  of  a 
spear. 

Thyamis,  Theagenes,  and  the  rest  of  the  robber  band  set 
out  for  Memphis,  the  first-named  desiring  to  recover  the 
priesthood  which  his  younger  brother,  Petosiris,  has  seized. 
This  causes  a  great  disturbance  in  the  city.  Arsace,^  who  is  in 
command  of  the  city,  endeavours  to  put  an  end  to  the  strife  by 
ordering  the  two  brothers  to  contend  in  single  combat,  the 
priesthood  to  be  given  to  the  victor.  The  combat  takes  place 
against  the  wish  of  Petosiris,  who  is  unskilled  in  the  use  of 
arms,  whereas  Thyamis  is  an  experienced  soldier.  Thyamis  at 
once  scares  his  brother,  who  flings  away  his  arms  and  takes  to 
flight,  being  twice  pursued  round  the  walls  of  the  city  by 
his  brother.  Theagenes— with  whom  Arsace,  the  wife  of 
Oroondates,  has  fallen  in  love — is  attending  on  Thyamis. 
Calasiris  and  Chariclea  come  on  the  scene.  Calasiris,  seeing 
his  sons  engaged  in  mortal  combat,  runs  up  to  them  with  a 
shout  and  with  difficulty  succeeds  in  stopping  the  fight,  since 
they  do  not  recognize  him.  Chariclea  falls  into  the  arms  of 
Theagenes.  The  brothers  lay  down  their  arms,  and  Thyamis 
is  appointed  to  the  priesthood  by  his  father,  who  soon 
afterwards  dies. 

Plot  of  Arsace  against  Theagenes  and  Chariclea,  in  which 
she  is  zealously  assisted  by  her  maid  Cybele,  who  invites  them 
to  the  palace.  Arsace's  uncontrollable  love  for  Theagenes, 
her  schemes,  methods  of  ill-treatment,  allurements,  and  plots. 
Cybele,    who    intends    to   give   a   cup   of  poisoned    wine   to 

^  Her  husband,  Oroondates,  being  absent  on  a  military  expedition. 


HELIODORUS  123 

Chariclea,  by  mistake  drinks  it  herself  and  dies.  Theagenes 
and  Chariclea  are  cruelly  treated  and  tortured  because  Thea- 
genes rejects  the  advances  of  Arsace.  Chariclea  is  condemned 
to  be  burnt,  but  the  flames  are  extinguished  by  the  stone 
pauiarbe.^  Thus  Chariclea  escapes  for  the  moment^  but 
Arsace,  in  her  rage,  prepares  to  have  her  put  to  death  the  next 
day.  Arsace's  husband,  Oroondates,  sends  [his  eunuch  Bagoas] 
to  bring  the  lovers  by  night  to  his  camp,  Cybele's  son,  dis- 
appointed in  his  desire  to  marry  Chariclea,  having  hastened  to 
inform  his  master  of  his  wife's  misconduct. 

Attack  by  the  Aethiopians ;  Theagenes  and  Chariclea 
carried  off  to  Hydaspes,  king  of  Aethiopia.  Their  conse- 
cration for  sacrifice — Theagenes  to  the  sun,  Chariclea  to  the 
moon.  Games  and  sacrifices  in  the  presence  of  Sisimithres, 
chief  of  the  gymnosophists,^  and  Persine,  the  king's  wife. 
Chariclea  demands  to  be  allowed  to  plead  her  cause  before  the 
king.  Her  demand  is  granted,  Sisimithres  being  appointed 
judge  ;  it  is  proved  by  the  evidence  of  witnesses  that  Chariclea 
is  really  the  daughter  of  Hydaspes  and  Persine.  Hydaspes  is 
with  difficulty  persuaded  of  the  truth  of  this,  but  in  obedience 
to  the  custom  of  the  country  is  still  determined  that  she  shall 
be  sacrificed.  Opposition  of  the  people  and  release  of  Chari- 
clea, to  the  joy  of  all.  Chariclea  threatened  with  another 
danger.  Theagenes  is  still  bound  for  the  sacrifice  and  in  spite 
of  her  earnest  entreaties  and  various  pleas,  her  father  refuses 
to  release  him.  Chariclea,  in  great  distress  of  mind,  tells  her 
mother  all  that  has  happened  to  herself  and  Theagenes.  The 
latter's  exploit  with  the  bull  and  the  delight  of  the  people.  He 
also  defeats  the  mightiest  wrestler  among  the  Aethiopians  amidst 
shouts  of  applause.  Nevertheless,  he  is  crowned  and  led  to 
the  sacrifice.  Charicles,  who  happens  to  be  present,  having 
come  from  Athens,  begs  the  king  to  restore  to  him  his  sup- 
posed daughter.  The  king  promises  to  do  so  if  he  can  find 
her,  but  he  is  unable  to  do  so.     Charicles  seizes  Theagenes 

^  Which  she  wore  on  her  finger  {see  Ctesias,  Indica,  p.  1 1 1 ). 

'  An  Indian  sect  of  philosophers  who  lived  an  extremely  ascetic  life. 
Their  doctrine  was  a  kind  of  Pantheism,  and  they  believed  in  ihe  trans- 
migration of  souls.  By  mortifying  the  body  they  hoped  to  purify  their 
souls.  They  wore  no  clothing,  hence  their  name  {gymnos,  naked,  sophistes, 
wise  man).  Their  influence  in  the  oriental  (and  even  in  the  Greek  world) 
was  great,  and  Alexander  the  Great,  during  his  campaigns,  endeavoured  to 
persuade  them  to  join  his  suite. 


124  THEMISTIUS 

and  drags  him  before  the  king,  exclaiming,  "  This  is  the 
man  who  stole  my  daughter  from  Athens."  An  investigation 
is  held,  Theagenes  is  declared  not  guilty  with  the  approval  of 
Sisimithres,  who  secures  the  abolition  of  human  sacrifice  for 
the  future,  amid  general  rejoicing.  Thus  Theagenes  and 
Chariclea,  after  all  their  trials  and  perils,  become  man  and 
wife.  Chariclea  crowned  with  the  mitre  of  the  priesthood  by 
her  mother,  and  Theagenes  by  his  father-in-law.  Sacrifice 
offered  and  preparations  made  for  the  mystic  nuptial  rites. 

This  romance  was  written  by  Heliodorus,  son  of  Theodosius, 
a  Phoenician  of  Emesa.  It  is  said  that  he  was  afterwards  a 
bishop. 

LXXIV 

Read  the  thirty-six  political  orations  of  Themistius.^  Some 
are  addressed  to  the  emperor  Constantius,  others  to  Valens, 
the  younger  Valentinian,  and  Theodosius,  and  contain  en- 
comiums and  panegyrics  of  these  emperors.  The  style  is  clear, 
free  from  redundancies,  but  somewhat  florid.  The  language  is 
official,^  with  a  tendency  to  solemnity.  Themistius  flourished 
in  the  reign  of  Valens,  as  is  clear  from  his  works.  He  was 
still  a  young  man  in  the  time  of  Constantius,  by  whom  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  senate,  as  is  evident  from  the  letter 
addressed  by  the  emperor  himself  to  that  body  on  behalf  of 
Themistius.  His  father,  who  was  also  a  philosopher,  was 
named  Eugenius.  We  have  seen  his  commentaries  on  all  the 
works  of  Aristotle,  and  concise  and  useful  paraphrases  of  the 
Analytics,  the  Soul,  the  Physics,  and  similar  works.  He  also 
did  something  for  the  interpretation  of  Plato,  and,  in  fact,  was 
a  lover  and  student  of  philosophy. 

^  Called  Euphrades  ("beautiful  speaker"),  neo-Platonist  and  sophist 
{c.  317-390),  born  in  Paphlagonia,  then  resident  at  Constantinople,  where 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  state,  finally  becoming  prefect  of  the  city. 
One  of  his  special  duties  was  to  deliver  official  orations  greeting  the 
emperors,  under  six  of  whom  he  lived.  In  addition  to  the  orations  here 
referred  to,  he  was  a  prolific  writer  on  philosophical  subjects.  When  quite 
a  young  man,  he  gained  considerable  reputation  as  the  author  of  a  com- 
mentary on  Aristotle.  He  was  on  friendly  terms  with  famous  literary  men, 
orators  and  philosophers,  Christian  as  well  as  heathen,  and  Gregory  of 
Nazianzus  calls  him  "the  king  of  arguments."  Of  the  thirty-six  speeches 
mentioned  by  Photius,  we  possess  thirty-four  (one  only  in  a  Latin 
translation),  and  some  of  his  work  on  Aristotle. 

2  "State-paper-like"  (T.  Hodgkin). 


JOHN  PHILOPONUS  125 

Also  read  the  sixteen  speeches  of  Lesbonax.^  This 
Lesbonax  .  .  . 

LXXV 

Read  the  little  treatise  of  John  Philoponus  -  against  the 
divinely-inspired  doctrine  of  the  holy  and  consubstantial  Trinity, 
set  forth  by  John  Scholasticus,  archbishop  of  Constantinople, 
in  his  catechetical  speech,  delivered  at  the  first  indiction  ^ 
during  the  reign  of  Justin. 

The  style  is  what  one  would  expect  from  the  author,  being 
clear  but  altogether  lacking  in  energy  and  dignity.  His 
arguments  are  not  only  blasphemous,  but  utterly  unsound  and 
feeble,  and  he  shows  himself  unable  to  give  even  a  superficial 
colouring  of  truth  to  his  fallacious  arguments  against  the  true 
faith.  Inventing  natures,  substances  and  godheads,  like  the 
insolent  babbler  that  he  is,  he  pours  forth  a  stream  of 
blasphemy  against  the  Christian  faith,  going  minutely  into  such 
points  as  "  how  many  does  one  mean  ? "  Thus,  in  his 
ingenious  trifling,  as  he  considers  it,  or  rather  his  puerile  want 
ot  taste,  he  insolently  boasts  that  he  despises  the  mystical  rites 
of  our  Church.  It  is  not  only  in  these  particular  arguments 
that  he  appears  weak  and  silly,  but  in  all  the  other  works  he  has 
written,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  which  he  has  plagiarized 
from  others,  while  falsely  laying  claim  to  originality.  He  is 
far  removed  from  those  writers  who  know  how  to  distinguish 
the  true  from  the  false,  and  are  capable  of  attaining  subtlety  of 
thought.  As  for  the  writings  falsely  claimed  by  him  as  his  own, 
they  have  generally  preserved  the  character  of  their  authors, 
except  that  in  some  cases  his  vicious  style  and  equipment  have 
destroyed  the  noble  manliness  of  the  original  writers.  They 
resemble  those  compounds  which,  naturally  excellent,  owing 
to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  reared  and  nourished,  show 
signs  of  spuriousness  and  degeneracy.  In  this  work  he  intro- 
duces quotations  from  the  holy  Fathers,  such  as  Gregory  the 
Theologian,  Basil  the  Great,  the  sorely-tried  Athanasius  and 
Saint  Cyril,  but  they  in  no  way  assist  his  impious  design. 

^  Probably  Lesbonax  of  My  tilene,  the  author  of  three  extant  declamations. 
It  is  uncertain  when  he  lived,  probably  in  the  first  century  A.D. 
a  See  Cod.  XXI.  ^  See^.  89,  note  4. 


126  JOSEPHUS 

LXXVI 

Read  the  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  by  Flavius  Josephus/  in 
twenty  books.  He  begins  with  the  Mosaic  cosmogony,  and 
although  his  account  agrees  in  the  main  with  that  generally 
accepted,  he  sometimes  differs.  The  work  ends  with  the  war 
between  the  Jews  and  Romans,  at  the  time  when  Agrippa,^  son 
of  the  great  Agrippa,^  who  deprived  Jesus,  son  of  Gamaliel,  of 
the  high  priesthood,  and  bestowed  it  upon  Matthias,  son  of 
Theophilus,  was  king  of  the  Jews.  Antiochus*  and  his 
general  Lysias  were  the  first  to  introduce  a  bold  innovation  in 
reference  to  the  tenure  of  the  high  priesthood.  They  removed 
Onias  named  Menelaus  from  that  office,  put  him  to  death, 
and  deprived  his  son  of  the  right  of  succession,  appointing  in 
his  place  Alcimus  called  lacimus,  of  the  tribe  of  Aaron,  but 
belonging  to  a  different  family.  Before  this  it  had  been  the 
law  from  the  time  of  Aaron  that  the  high  priest  should  hold 
office  for  life,  and  that  the  son  should  succeed  the  father.  But 
when  Alcimus  died,  after  having  been  high  priest  for  three 
years,  the  office  remained  in  abeyance  for  seven  years.  After 
Matthias  and  his  sons  of  the  Asmortean  family  were  entrusted 
with  the  leadership  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  made  war  on  the 
Macedonians,  Jonathan  was  appointed  high  priest.  To  this 
family  also  belonged  Judas,  who  was  called  Aristobulus,  who 
first  placed  the  diadem  on  his  head,  thus  filling  the  office  of 
both  high  priest  and  king.  A  year  later  he  died,  and  left  his 
brother  Alexander  his  successor  in  the  kingdom  and  priest- 
hood, who  held  these  dignities  for  twenty-seven  years.  From 
this  time  the  kingship  and  priesthood  combined  remained  in 
the  Asmonean  family  until  the  time  of  Hyrcanus,  whom 
Pompey,  after  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem,  deprived  of  his 
kingdom,  but  allowed  him  to  hold  the  office  of  high  priest. 
After  thirty-three  years  he  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Parthian 
generals  Barzapharnes  and  Pacorus,  who  appointed  as  king 
Antigonus,  the  son  of  the  brother  of  Aristobulus.     After  Anti- 

1  Cod.  XLVII. 

^  27-100.      He  is  the  Agrippa  beiore  whom  St.  Paul  was  brought. 

^  Grandson  of  Herod  the  Great.  He  is  notorious  for  his  persecution  01 
the  Christians  (44).  He  is  said  to  have  died  of  a  terrible  disease  (Acts 
xii.  23). 

*  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria  175-164.  He  was  a  determined 
advocate  of  eradicating  Judaism  and  of  the  hellenization  of  the  people. 


JOSEPHUS  127 

gonus  had  reigned  three  years  and  three  months,  the  Roman 
general  Sosius  and  Herod  the  First,  the  son  of  Antipater,  a 
priest  of  Ascalon,  and  of  Cypris  the  Arabian,  overthrew  him, 
and  took  him  to  Antioch,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by 
Antony.  This  was  the  end  of  the  Asmonean  dynasty,  and 
Herod  was  made  king  of  the  Jews  by  the  Romans.  He 
bestowed  the  high  priesthood  upon  any  one  without  distinction, 
setting  an  example  for  his  successors  to  follow.  As  stated 
above,  the  author,  in  his  twenty  books,  beginning  from  the 
creation  of  the  world,  goes  down  to  the  beginning  of  the  last 
war  between  the  Jews  and  the  Romans,  at  the  time  when 
Agrippa,  son  of  Agrippa,  had  been  appointed  king  of  the  Jews 
by  the  Romans  and  Gessius  Florus  -^  had  succeeded  Albinus  as 
governor  of  Judaea.  The  Jews,  unable  to  endure  Florus's 
wickedness  and  cruelty,  revolted,  thinking  it  better  to  perish  at 
once  together  in  freedom  than  gradually  and  in  slavery.  It 
was  in  the  second  year  of  Florus's  governorship  and  the  twelfth 
year  of  the  reign  of  Nero,  that  the  war  broke  out,  with  which 
the  history  of  Josephus  ends.  Of  his  style  we  have  already 
spoken. 

Josephus  was  by  birth  a  Jew  and  a  priest,  belonging  to  a 
family  descended  from  a  long  line  of  priests  on  the  father's 
side.  On  the  mother's  side  he  was  of  royal  blood,  for  the 
children  of  Asmoneus,  from  whom  her  family  was  derived,  had 
for  a  long  time  held  both  the  high  priesthood  and  the  rank  of 
king.  His  father's  name  was  Matthias.  He  was  born  in  the 
first  year  of  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Gains, ^  and  from  boyhood 
was  an  earnest  student.  In  his  sixteenth  year,  he  began  to 
devote  his  attention  to  the  three  sects  of  the  Jews,  and  con- 
scientiously examined  them,  so  that  after  having  tried  them  all 
he  might  be  able  to  choose  the  best.  These  sects  are  the 
Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and  Essenes.  Having  gone  through 
them  all,  he  retired  into  the  wilderness,  living  there  for  three 
years  with  a  man  ^  who  led  a  solitary  and  ascetic  life.  This 
man's  clothes  were  made  of  the  leaves  of  trees,  his  food  con- 
sisted of  natural  herbs  and  fruit,  and  he  bathed  frequently  both 
by  night  and  day,  to  keep  himself  chaste.  When  he  was 
nineteen,  Josephus  returned  to  the  city  and  joined  the  sect  of 
the  Pharisees,  which  is  said  to  resemble  the  sect  called  Stoic 

^  64-65.  *  Caligula,  emperor  37-41. 

^  According  to  Josephus,  his  name  was  Banus. 


128  EUNAPIUS 

among  the  Greeks.  In  his  thirtieth  year,  he  was  sent  by  the 
people  of  Jerusalem  to  investigate  the  condition  of  affairs  in 
Galilee,  where  there  was  great  confusion  and  things  were  in  a 
very  unsettled  state.  He  was  then  appointed  commander-in- 
chief  of  Galilee,  and  showed  himself  an  efficient  administrator. 
He  successfully  escaped  plots  of  different  kinds  laid  against 
him  by  his  political  rivals,  and  by  showing  a  spirit  of  moderation 
in  dealing  with  his  enemies  often  brought  them  over  to  his  side. 
Having  taken  up  arms  against  the  Romans  against  his  will, 
after  a  brave  resistance  at  lotapata  he  was  taken  prisoner  by 
Vespasian,  who  treated  him  kindly  at  the  time  and  still  more  so 
after  he  became  emperor.  Not  only  Vespasian,  but  his  sons  and 
successors,  Titus  and  Domitian,  entertained  the  highest  regard 
for  him  ;  the  Roman  citizenship  was  bestowed  upon  him,  and 
he  became  very  wealthy.  He  finished  his  History  in  the 
fifty-sixth  year  of  his  age,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the  reign 
of  Domitian. 

LXXVH 

Read  the  new  edition  of  the  continuation  of  the  Chronicle 
of  Dexippus  ^  by  Eunapius,^  in  fourteen  books.  It  begins  with 
the  reign  of  Claudhis  Caesar,  when  the  history  of  Dexippus 
ends,  and  goes  down  to  the  time  of  Honorius  and  Arcadius, 
the  sons  of  Theodosius.  The  work  actually  ends  at  the  time 
when  Arsacius,  after  the  banishment  of  John  Chysostom,  was 
raised  to  the  archbishopric  of  Constantinople,^  and  the  wife 
of  Arcadius  died  of  a  miscarriage.  This  Eunapius  was  a 
native  of  Sardes  in  Lydia,  and  an  impious  heathen.  He 
slanders  and  abuses  in  every  way  and  without  restraint  all 
who  have  adorned  the  empire  by  their  piety,  especially  Con- 
stantine  the  Great ;  on  the  other  hand,  he  extols  the  impious, 
above  all  Julian  the  Apostate.  Indeed,  it  almost  seems  as  if 
the  work  was  written  as  an  elaborate  panegyric  upon  him. 

1  See  Cod.  LXXXII. 

^  Of  Sardes  (r.  345-420),  educated  at  Athens,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life 
in  his  native  town  as  a  physician  and  rhetorician.  Plis  "historical 
memoirs  "  deal  with  events  from  270  to  414.  He  was  also  the  author  of 
some  extant  Lives  of  the  Sophists.  He  was  a  bitter  enemy  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  a  devoted  adherent  of  neo-Platonism.  In  the  "second 
edition  "  of  the  Chronicle  much  that  was  offensive  to  Christianity  was 
omitted. 

3  404-405- 


MALCHUS  129 

His  style  is  elegant,  if  one  cuts  out  terms  and  expressions 
such  as  "fowl-like,"  "more  deer-like,"  "more  swine-like," 
"hawk-like,"  "crow-like,"  "ape-like,"  "a  tear  like  a  river," 
and  so  on,  which  vitiate  and  debase  the  .nobiUty  of  the  rest  of 
the  language.  He  also  makes  use  of  figures  of  speech  caprici- 
ously, a  fault  which  the  rule  of  historical  writing  forbids,  but  in 
general  his  forcible  style  combined  with  urbanity  palliates  the 
offence.  His  method  of  composition,  his  clearness  and  his  use 
of  periods  are  exactly  suited,  and  appropriate  to  historical  nar- 
rative ;  sometimes,  however,  the  style  is  wordy  with  a  tendency 
towards  forensic  rather  than  historical  language.  In  construc- 
tion he  introduces  numerous  innovations,  but  not  so  as  to  cause 
unpleasantness  nor  to  afford  an  excuse  for  attacking  his 
methods.^ 

He  wrote  two  volumes,  covering  the  same  period.  In  the 
first,  he  bespatters  with  abuse  the  pure  faith  of  us  Christians, 
glorifies  the  heathen  superstition,  and  attacks  many  pious 
emperors.  In  the  second  volume,  which  he  calls  a  "  new 
edition,"  he  has  cut  out  the  insults  and  brutal  abuse  which  he 
had  showered  upon  Christian  piety,  and,  having  connected  the 
rest  of  the  body  of  the  work,  calls  it,  as  we  have  said,  a  "  new 
edition,"  although  it  still  shows  considerable  traces  of  the 
original  frenzy.  We  have  come  across  old  copies  of  both 
editions,  both  in  separate  volumes  and  combined,  and,  having 
read  both,  are  in  a  position  to  estimate  the  difference.  The 
result  is  that  in  the  new  edition  many  passages,  owing  to  the 
omissions,  are  mutilated  and  obscure,  although  generally 
the  author  shows  a  great  regard  for  clearness.  Somehow  or 
other  in  this  second  edition  he  has  not  connected  the  narrative 
with  due  regard  to  the  omissions,  and  so  has  spoiled  the 
meaning. 

LXXVIH 

Read  the  Byzantine  History  of  Malchus  the  sophist  ^  in 
seven  books.     It  begins  with  the  final  illness  and  death  of  the 

^  Me0JSois.     Another  reading  is  TreptoSou,  "  periods." 

2  Of  Philadelphia  in  Syria.  According  to  Suidas,  the  History  began 
with  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  according  to  Photius  with  the 
seventeenth  year  of  Leo's  reign  (473),  being  a  continuation  of  that  of 
Priscus.  It  ended  with  the  murder  of  the  West  Roman  emperor  Nepos 
(480).  For  the  history  of  the  period,  see  Gibbon,  Decline  and  Fall,  ch.  36  ; 
Bury,  Later  Roman  Empire,  i.  227  (1889). 

VOL.  I.  I 


130  CANDIDUS 

emperor  Leo  in  the  seventeenth  year  of  his  reign.  The  author 
gives  an  account  of  the  proclamation  and  accession  of  Zeno,  his 
expulsion  from  the  throne  and  life  as  a  private  individual,  the 
accession  and  abdication  of  the  usurper  Basiliscus.  The  restora- 
tion of  Zeno  to  the  throne  and  the  murder  of  Basiliscus,  his  wife 
and  children  being  unjustly  put  to  death  at  the  same  time. 
Harmatius,  who  had  restored  Zeno,  met  with  a  similar  recom- 
pense, being  put  to  death  by  Onulphus.  The  author  also 
gives  an  account  of  the  rebellion  of  Theodoric  the  son  of 
Triarius  ;  the  friendship  of  Theodoric  the  son  of  Malamir,^  and 
his  war  with  Theodoric  the  son  of  Triarius  ;  the  second  revolt 
against  Zeno,  the  rebellion  of  Marcian,  the  conspiracy  ^  of 
Zeno's  mother-in-law,  and  the  banishment  of  Marcian  for  life. 
Verina's  plot  against  lUus,  the  treacherous  seizure  of  Epi- 
damnus  by  Theodoric  the  son  of  Malamir.  Having  described 
these  events  the  author  then  touches  upon  Roman  affairs.  The 
seventh  book  ends  with  the  death  of  Nepos,  who,  having 
driven  out  Glycerins,  assumed  the  imperial  power,  ordered 
Glycerius's  hair  to  be  cut  like  a  cleric's  and  made  him  chief 
priest  instead  of  emperor.  Nepos  himself  was  subsequently 
slain  at  the  instigation  of  Glycerins.  These  seven  books  show 
that  the  author  had  already  written  an  account  of  preceding 
events,  as  also  appears  from  the  beginning  of  the  first  book  of 
the  seven.  The  end  of  the  seventh  book  further  shows  that  he 
had  intended  to  continue  the  history,  if  his  life  had  been  spared. 
Malchus,  a  native  of  Philadelphia,  is  a  most  admirable 
historian.  His  style  is  pure,  free  from  redundancies  and  easy 
to  understand  ;  the  language  is  ornate  and  explicit,  if  somewhat 
pompous  ;  he  does  not  hesitate  to  employ  unfamiliar  expressions 
characterized  by  emphasis,  euphony,  and  sublimity.  Speaking 
generally,  his  language  is  a  model  for  the  historian.  A  sophist 
by  profession,  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  rhetoricians,  he 
appears  to  have  been  a  member  of  the  Christian  Church. 

LXXIX 

Read  the  History  by  Candidus  ^  in  three  books.     It  begins 
with    the   accession    of    Leo,    a   native   of    Dacia   in    Illyria, 

^  Or  Valamir.  ^  Against  Zeno. 

^  Nothing;  more  is  known  of  his  life  than  what  Photius  tells  us.  For 
the  period  of  history  (457-491)  see  Gibbon  and  Bury  referred  to  in  note  on 
Cod.  LXXVIII. 


CANDIDUS  131 

military  tribune  and  in  command  of  the  troops  in  Selymbria, 
who  obtained  the  throne  by  the  aid  of  Aspar.  Aspar 
was  an  Alan  and  a  soldier  from  his  early  years.  He  had 
been  three  times  married,  and  had  three  sons,  Ardaburius, 
Patricius,  and  Ermenarichus.^  The  narrative  goes  down  to 
the  proclamation  of  Anastasius  as  emperor.  The  author  was 
a  native  of  Isauria  Tracheia,^  as  he  himself  tells  us,  and  by 
profession  clerk  to  certain  influential  Isaurians.  By  religion 
he  was  an  orthodox  Christian,  as  appears  from  his  eulogy  of 
the  fourth  synod  and  his  well-justified  attack  on  innovators. 
His  style  is  not  suited  for  history.  He  makes  use  of  poetical 
expressions  that  are  insipid  and  childish ;  the  composition  is 
harsh  and  discordant,  inclined  to  dithyrambic  bombast  or 
degenerating  into  carelessness  and  inelegance.  He  introduces 
new  constructions,  which  do  not,  as  in  the  case  of  other 
writers,  lend  additional  smoothness  and  charm  to  the  work, 
but  make  it  disagreeable  to  read  and  utterly  unattractive. 
While  here  and  there  his  style  shows  improvement,  his  history 
is  obviously  a  medley  of  most  different  materials.  He  main- 
tains that  the  name  Isauria  is  derived  from  Esau. 

The  first  book  describes  the  influence  of  Aspar  and  his 
sons,  the  election  of  Leo  to  the  throne  by  Aspar,  the  great 
fire  that  broke  out  in  Constantinople,  and  Aspar's  measures 
for  the  general  welfare.  Of  Tatian  and  Vivian  ;  the  dispute  of 
Aspar  and  the  emperor  concerning  them,  and  what  they  said 
to  one  another.  How  this  led  to  an  alliance  of  the  emperor 
with  the  Isaurians  through  Tarasicodissas,  the  son  of  Rusum- 
bladeotes,  whose  name  was  changed  to  Zeno  when  he  became 
Leo's  son-in-law,  after  the  death  of  his  first  wife.  How 
Ardaburius,  to  oppose  the  emperor,  also  endeavoured  to  win 
over  the  Isaurians.  How  a  certain  Martin,  the  friend  of 
Ardaburius,  informed  Tarasicodissas  of  Ardaburius's  plot 
against  the  emperor ;  how  mutual  suspicion  was  aggravated 
until  finally  the  emperor  Leo  decided  to  put  to  death  Aspar 
and  his  sons  Ardaburius  and  Patricius  the  Caesar.  Aspar 
was  killed ;  Patricius,  however,  unexpectedly  recovered  from  his 
wounds,  and  Aspar's  other  son  Ermenarichus,  who  happened 
not  to  be  with  his  father  at  the  time,  also  escaped.  Leo  gives 
Tarasicodissas  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Ariadne  in  marriage, 

^  Ermenaric. 

^  Tracheotis,  a  district  of  Asia  Minor  between  Cilicia  and  Pisidia. 


132  CANDIDUS 

changes  his  name  to  Zeno,  and  appoints  him  general  of  the 
East.  The  successes  and  reverses  of  Basiliscus  in  Africa. 
How  Leo  desired  and  schemed  to  secure  the  election  of  his 
son-in-law  Zeno  as  emperor,  but  could  not  prevail  upon  his 
subjects  to  consent.  A  little  before  his  death,  however,  he 
proclaimed  his  grandson  Leo,  the  son  of  Ariadne,  who,  after 
his  grandfather's  death,  with  the  assent  of  the  senate  placed 
the  crown  upon  the  head  of  his  father.  Then  follows  a 
detailed  genealogy  of  the  Isaurians,  in  which  the  author  does 
his  best  to  prove  that  they  were  descendants  of  Esau.  How 
Zeno,  deceived  by  Verina,  fled  with  his  wife  and  mother, 
abandoning  the  city  and  the  throne.  How  Verina,  hoping 
that  Patricius  the  magister  would  marry  her  and  make  himself 
emperor,  by  treachery  drove  out  her  son-in-law,^  but  was 
deceived  in  her  hopes,  for  those  in  authority  raised  her 
brother  Basiliscus  to  the  throne.  The  terrible  massacre  of 
Isaurians  in  Constantinople.  Nepos,  the  emperor  of  Rome, 
succeeded  by  Augustulus,  the  son  of  Orestes.  Such  is  the 
contents  of  the  first  book. 

The  second  book  relates  how  Patricius  the  magister,  who 
had  carried  on  an  intrigue  with  Verina,  was  slain  by  her 
indignant  brother  Basiliscus.  How  Verina  conceived  a  hatred 
of  her  brother  on  this  account,  assisted  Zeno  with  money  to 
recover  the  throne,  was  persecuted  by  her  brother,  and,  had 
not  Armatus^  secretly  got  her  away  from  the  church,  would 
probably  have  lost  her  life.  Armatus,  who  had  carried  on  an 
intrigue  with  the  wife  of  Basiliscus,  obtained  great  influence 
and  was  entrusted  with  the  conduct  of  the  war  against  Zeno ; 
but  subsequently  entered  into  an  agreement  with  Illus  and 
went  over  to  Zeno.  Armatus  was  held  in  great  esteem  by 
Zeno,  and  his  son  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Caesar.  Neverthe- 
less, he  was  afterwards  put  to  death,  and  his  son,  deprived 
of  the  rank  of  Caesar,  became  one  of  the  readers  at  Blachernae. 
Basiliscus  before  this  had  declared  his  son  Marcus  Caesar 
and  afterwards  emperor.  Illus,  having  become  reconciled 
to  Zeno,  prepared  to  help  him  to  recover  the  throne. 
Basiliscus,  against  whom  his  own  adherents  revolted,  fled  with 
his  children  and  his  wife  Zenonis,  was  treacherously  induced 

^  Zeno. 

2  Harmatius,  magister  militum,  nephew  of  Basiliscus,  a  young  man  of 
fashion. 


CANDIDUS  133 

by  Armatus  to  leave  the  church  in  which  he  had  taken  refuge, 
and  banished  to  Cappadocia,  where  he  was  put  to  death 
with  all  his  family.  When  the  impious  Peter  ^  was  disturbing 
the  Churches  of  the  East,  Zeno  sent  Calandion  to  be  consecrated 
patriarch  of  Antioch.  The  emperor  being  in  want  of  money 
succeeded  in  obtaining  some  by  methods  suggested  to  him.^ 
Many  who  conspired  against  him  were  seized  and  put  to 
death.  lUus  rendered  great  services  to  the  empire  by  his 
valour  in  war  and  military  successes,  by  his  ambitious^ 
political  measures  and  by  his  just  dealings.  After  the  death  of 
the  Roman  emperor  Nepos  and  the  expulsion  of  his  son 
Augustulus,  Odoacer  *  obtained  possession  of  Italy  and  the 
city  of  Rome  itself.  But  the  western  Gauls  rebelled  against 
him,  and  both  they  and  Odoacer  sent  ambassadors  to  Zeno, 
who  rather  favoured  Odoacer.  A  certain  Alan  who  attempted 
to  kill  Illus,  after  he  had  wounded  him,  declared  that  he  had 
been  bribed  by  Epinicius,  an  intimate  of  Verina.  Epinicius 
was  handed  over  to  Illus,  and  after  obtaining  a  promise  that 
he  should  be  forgiven  and  rewarded,  disclosed  Verina's 
designs  against  Illus.  Zeno  hands  Verina  over  to  Illus,  who 
banished  her  to  a  fortress  in  Cilicia,  and  thus  secured  his 
safety.  Illus,  who  had  become  very  intimate  with  the  impious 
Pamprepius,^  to  whom  he  had  been  introduced  by  Marsus, 
gradually  became  ruined.  Civil  war  against  Zeno  begun  by 
Marcian  and  Procopius,  sons  of  the  Roman  emperor  Anthe- 
mius.  After  they  had  been  defeated,  Marcian  was  ordained 
a  priest,  and  Procopius  took  refuge  with  Theodoric  in  Thrace. 
Marcian,  in  banishment  in  Cappadocia,  escaped  and  stirred  up 
revolt  in  Ancyra  in  Galatia  until  at  length  he  was  captured  and 
banished  to  Isauria.  The  origin  of  the  emperor's  increasing 
hatred  of  Illus.  This  is  the  contents  of  the  second  book. 
The  third  book,  amongst  other  things,  relates   how   Illus 

^  Peter,  surnamed  the  Fuller,  patriarch  of  Antioch  471-488,  a 
Monophysite.  ^  Or,  "  by  denunciations,"  "  extortion." 

3  The  word  (pi\6Tiixos  is  generally  used  in  a  bad  sense,  but  not 
apparently  here. 

*  Odovacar,  king  of  the  Heruli,  who  conquered  Rome  in  476,  thus 
bringing  about  the  so-called  fall  of  the  Western  empire. 

5  Of  Panopolis  (Chemmis)  in  Upper  Egypt,  professor  of  grammar 
(philology)  at  the  University  of  Athens.  He  was  said  to  have  written  an 
/saurua  and  a  treatise  on  etymology,  fie  was  a  neo-Platonist  and  bitter 
opponent  of  Christianity. 


134  OLYMPIODORUS 

rose  in  open  revolt  against  Zeno,  declared  Leontius  emperor 
and  Verina  empress ;  how  the  revolt  failed,  and  lUus  and 
Leontius  were  besieged,^  captured,  and  beheaded.  It  also 
contains  an  account  of  events  to  the  death  of  Zeno. 

LXXX 

Read  the  Histories  of  Olympiodorus,^  in  twenty-two  books. 
They  begin  with  the  seventh  consulship  of  the  emperor 
Honorius  and  the  second  of  Theodosius,  and  go  down  to  the 
time  when  Valentinian,  the  son  of  Placidia  and  Constantius, 
was  proclaimed  emperor  of  the  Romans.  The  author,  a 
heathen,  was  a  native  of  Thebes  in  Egypt,  a  poet  by  pro- 
fession, according  to  his  own  account.  His  style  is  clear  but 
loose  and  wanting  in  vigour,  and  sometimes  degenerates  into 
commonplace  vulgarity,  so  that  the  work  does  not  deserve  to 
be  considered  a  history.  Perhaps  that  is  the  reason  why  the 
author  himself,  conscious  of  these  defects,  declares  that  his 
work  is  not  a  history,  but  a  collection  of  materials  for  a 
history,  so  destitute  of  regular  form  did  he  himself  consider 
his  style  and  phraseology.  He  is  not  distinguished  for  form, 
except  so  far  as  one  might  assert  that  he  now  and  again 
approaches  simplicity ;  but  even  in  this,  owing  to  the  excessive 
meanness  and  paltriness  of  his  diction,  he  is  unsuccessful  and 
gradually  descends  to  vulgar  mannerism.  He  calls  his  work 
Silva,  but  divides  it  into  books  and  strives  to  embellish  it  with 
prefaces.  It  is  dedicated  to  the  emperor  Theodosius,  the  son 
of  Arcadius,  and  nephew  of  Honorius  and  Placidia. 

The  rise  of  Stilicho  to  power  ;  his  appointment  by  Theodosius 
the  Great  to  the  guardianship  of  his  children  Arcadius  and 
Honorius,  his  marriage  to  Serena,  betrothed  to  him  by  her 
uncle  the  emperor  himself.  Marriage  of  his  daughter 
Thermantia  to   Honorius,  and  his   rise  to  the  height  of  his 

^  In  the  castle  of  Papirius  in  Isauria.  It  was  betrayed  by  Illus's 
sister-in-law. 

^  A  native  of  Egyptian  Thebes,  and  ambassador  in  412  to  the  Hun 
prince  Donatus.  He  was  a  heathen.  The  Hisiory,  dedicated  to 
Theodosius  II,  contained  an  account  of  events  from  407  to  425.  It  is 
an  important  contemporary  guide,  and  its  loss,  except  for  Photius's 
abstract,  is  much  to  be  regreUed.  On  the  period  see  Gibbon,  Decline 
and  Fall,  chs.  30-32  ;  Bury,  Later  Rotnan  Empire,  i.  ;  Hodgkin,  Italy 
and  her  Invaders,  bk.  i.  pt.  2  ;  E.  A.  Freeman,  IVestern  Europe  in  the 
Fifth  Century,  1904. 


OLYMPIODORUS  135 

power.  His  many  successful  foreign  wars.  His  death  at  the 
hands  of  the  cruel  and  inhuman  Olympius,  whom  he  had 
himself  recommended  to  the  emperor. 

Alaric,  chieftain  of  the  Goths,  whom  Stilicho  had  previously 
sent  for  that  he  might  retain  Illyricum  for  Honorius  (to  whom 
that  prefecture  had  been  assigned  by  his  father  Theodosius),  in 
consequence  of  the  murder  of  Stilicho,  and  because  the  promises 
made  to  him  had  not  been  kept,  besieges  and  sacks  Rome. 
He  carries  off  an  enormous  amount  of  booty  together  with 
Placidia,  the  sister  of  Honorius,  who  was  in  the  city  at  the 
time.  Before  its  capture  he  declares  emperor  a  distinguished 
citizen  named  Attalus,  the  city  prefect.  Another  reason  for 
Alaric's  conduct  was  that  Sarus,  also  a  Goth,  captain  of  a 
small  band,  not  more  than  200  or  300  in  number,  and  a 
brave  and  invincible  warrior,  had  been  offered  an  alliance 
by  the  Romans  as  being  hostile  to  Alaric,  who  thus  became 
their  irreconcilable  enemy. 

During  the  siege  of  Rome  the  inhabitants  were  reduced  to 
cannibalism.  Alaric,  while  Stilicho  was  still  alive,  received 
4000  pounds  of  gold  for  the  expenses  of  his  expedition. 
After  the  death  of  Stilicho  his  widow  Serena  is  strangled,  it 
being  thought  that  she  might  have  been  responsible  for 
Alaric's  attack  on  the  city.  His  son  Eucherius  had  already 
been  put  to  death. 

During  the  reign  of  Honorius  the  name  Biicellarii^  was  given 
not  only  to  Roman,  but  also  to  foreign  soldiers ;  and  similarly, 
the  name  Foederati'^  to  a  mixed  and  irregular  body  of  troops. 

Olympius,  who  intrigued  against  Stilicho,  appointed  master 
of  the  offices,^  but  afterwards  deprived  of  his  post.  He 
recovers  it  and  is  again  deprived  of  it.  He  is  beaten  to 
death  by  order  of  Constantius,  the  husband  of  Placidia,  after 

^  The  name  is  said  to  have  originally  meant  a  body  of  soldiers  who 
accepted  any  one's  "bread"  in  return  for  attendance  upon  him.  They 
would  thus  have  formed  a  kind  of  bodyguard  (Ducange).  One  of  the 
"themes"  or  military  divisions  of  the  empire  was  also  called  the 
Bucellarian. 

^  Especially  the  Goths.  They  were  nominally  tributaries,  but  the  tribute 
was  often  diminished  or  remitted  altogether.  Gradually,  they  came  to  be 
looked  upon  as  a  frontier  defence  force  and  received  pay  (Hodgkin,  The 
Visigothic  Invasion,  i,  31 1-315). 

•  The  most  important  officer  of  the  civil  administration.  He  united  in 
his  person  most  of  the  chief  secretaryships  with  the  duties  of  private 
secretary  to  the  emperor. 


136  OLYMPIODORUS 

his  ears  have  first  been  cut  off.  Thus  the  impious  wretch 
meets  with  due  punishment  at  last. 

The  chief  men  of  the  Goths  with  Radagaisus,  about  12,000 
in  number,  called  Optiniati,  are  defeated  by  Stilicho,  who 
enters  into  an  alliance  with  Radagaisus. 

Illness  and  death  of  Alaric,  w^ho  is  succeeded  by  his  wife's 
brother  Ataulf. 

The  author  says  that  dry  bread  was  called  biicellaiutn^  and 
jestingly  suggests  that  the  soldiers  were  called  bucellarii  for 
this  reason.^ 

Constantine,  having  made  himself  tyrant  in  Gaul,  sends 
ambassadors  to  Honorius,  excusing  himself  on  the  ground 
that  he  had  been  forced  to  assume  the  purple  by  the  soldiers, 
and  asking  forgiveness  and  recognition  as  his  colleague. 
Honorius,  being  in  great  straits,  agrees  to  his  request.  This 
Constantine  had  been  declared  emperor  during  a  revolt  of  the 
soldiers  in  Britain,  where,  before  the  seventh  consulship  of 
Honorius,  they  had  proclaimed  a  certain  Marcus  emperor. 
He  was  soon  removed  by  them  and  Gratian  appointed  in  his 
stead.  After  four  months,  they  grew  tired  of  him  also,  and 
put  him  to  death,  Constantine  being  promoted  to  the  rank 
and  title  of  Augustus.  Having  appointed  Justin  and  Neo- 
bigastes  to  the  command  of  his  forces,  he  left  Britain  and 
crossed  over  to  Bononia,^  a  town  on  the  coast,  the  first  in 
Gallic  territory.  There  he  spent  some  time,  gaining  over  all 
the  soldiery  of  Gaul  and  Aquitaine,  and  occupied  the  whole 
of  Gaul  as  far  as  the  Alps  which  separate  Italy  and  Gaul.  He 
had  two  sons,  Constans  and  Julian,  the  former  of  whom  he 
raised  to  the  rank  of  Caesar,  and  bestowed  the  dignity  of 
Nobilissimns  ^  upon  the  latter. 

Attains,  created  rival  emperor  to  Honorius,  marches  towards 
Ravenna,  where   Jovian,*  praetorian    prefect^  and  patrician,^ 

^  Another  suggested  derivation  is  bticitla,  the  part  of  a  helmet  that 
covers  the  mouth  and  cheeks. 

2  Boulogne. 

^  This  title  was  bestowed  on  the  brothers,  sisters,  and  children  of  the 
emperor,  the  official  hierarchy  by  which  he  was  surrounded  being  iiobiles. 

^  Or  Jovius. 

^  The  praetorian  prefects  were  the  most  important  personages  next  to 
the  emperor. 

^  Under  the  empire  hardly  any  of  the  old  exclusive  patrician  families 
survived  ;  Constantine  re-introduced  the  name  not  as  that  of  an  order 
with  hereditary  privileges,  but  as  a  personal  honour  and  dignity. 


OLYMPIODORUS  137 

Valens,  magister  utriusque  milidae^^  Potamius  the  quaestor, 
and  ^vX\2cci  priiniceriiis  noiarioriwi^^  are  sent  to  him  as  envoys 
by  Honorius.  They  inform  Attalus  that  they  have  been  sent 
by  Honorius  to  discuss  the  question  of  admitting  him  to  a 
partnership  in  the  empire.  He  refuses,  but  offers  to  allow 
Honorius  to  retire  unharmed  to  some  island  or  anywhere  else 
he  pleased.  Jovian  gladly  accepts  this  proposal,  further 
proposing  that  Honorius  should  be  mutilated.  Attalus  rebukes 
Jovian,  saying  that  there  is  no  reason  for  mutilating  Honorius, 
if  he  voluntarily  abdicates.  Jovian,  after  several  unsuccessful 
embassies,  remains  with  Attalus  as  his  patriciiis.  Meanwhile, 
the  command  of  Ravenna  devolves  upon  the  ptaepositus"^ 
Eusebius,  who,  soon  afterwards,  by  the  cruelty  of  Allobich 
and  by  public  decree  is  flogged  to  death  in  the  sight  of  the 
emperor.  After  a  considerable  time,  Attalus,  who  does  not 
remain  loyal  to  Alaric  (chiefly  owing  to  Jovian,  who  had 
betrayed  the  ambassadors  of  Honorius),  is  deprived  of  the 
throne,  and  afterwards  joins  the  suite  of  Alaric  as  a  private 
individual.  He  is  subsequently  restored,  but  again  compelled 
to  abdicate.  Finally,  he  sets  out  for  Ravenna,  is  captured, 
and,  after  the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  his  right  hand  have 
been  cut  off,  is  banished. 

Soon  afterwards,  Allobich  pays  the  penalty  for  the  murder 
of  the  praepositus  Eusebius,  and  is  put  to  death  before  the 
emperor.  The  tyrant  Constantine,  when  informed  of  the 
death  of  Allobich,  sets  out  in  haste  for  Ravenna,  to  make  a 
treaty  with.  Honorius,  but  being  alarmed,  turns  back. 

Rhegium  *  was  the  chief  town  of  Bruttii,^  whence  the 
historian  says  Alaric  intended  to  cross  over  to  Sicily,  but  was 
prevented  from  doing  so  by  a  sacred  statue.  This  statue  is 
said  to  have  been  consecrated  by  the  ancients  as  a  protection 
against  the  fires  of  Aetna  and  the  passage  of  barbarians  from 
over  seas.  In  one  foot  it  contained  a  fire  that  was  never 
extinguished,  in  the  other  a  supply  of  water  that  never  failed. 
When  it  was  subsequently  destroyed  by  Asclepius,  the  manager 
of  Constantius  and  Placidia's  Sicilian  property,  the  inhabitants 
suffered  greatly  from  Aetna  and  the  barbarians. 

1  Commander  of  both  infantry  and  cavalry. 
^  Chief  of  the  secretaries. 

2  Praepositus  cubiculi  sacri,  president  or  superintendent  of  the  sacred 
bedchamber,  the  grand  chamberlain. 

•*  Reggio.  ^  Modern  Calabria. 


138  OLYMPIODORUS 

The  tyrant  Constantine  and  his  son  Constans,  who  was 
first  Caesar  and  afterwards  Augustus,  having  been  defeated 
and  put  to  fiight,  his  general,  Gerontius,  gladly  makes  peace 
with  the  barbarians  and  proclaims  Maximus,  one  of  the 
domestics  ^  and  his  own  son,'^  emperor.  He  then  pursues  Con- 
stans, puts  him  to  death,  and  sets  out  after  Constantine.  While 
these  events  are  taking  place,  Constantius  and  Ulphilas  are  sent 
by  Honorius  against  Constantine ;  having  reached  Arelate,^ 
where  Constantine  was  living  with  his  son  Julian,  they  lay 
siege  to  it.  Constantine  takes  refuge  in  a  church  and  is 
ordained  priest,  having  been  solemnly  promised  that  his  life 
should  be  spared.  The  city  gates  are  thrown  open  to  the 
besiegers,  and  Constantine  and  his  son  taken  to  Honorius. 
But  the  emperor,  bearing  a  grudge  against  them  for  the  murder 
of  his  cousins  by  Constantine,  orders  them  to  be  put  to  death 
in  violation  of  his  oath,  thirty  miles  from  Ravenna.  Gerontius, 
on  the  arrival  of  Constantius  and  Ulphilas,  takes  to  flight,  and 
is  seized  by  his  mutinous  troops,  who  resented  his  severe 
discipline.  The  house  where  he  seeks  refuge  is  set  on  fire, 
but  he  offers  a  brave  resistance  to  the  mutineers,  together 
with  one  of  his  servants,  an  Alan  by  birth.  At  last,  he  slays 
the  Alan  and  then  his  wife,  at  their  earnest  request,  and  then 
stabs  himself.  His  son  Maximus,  on  hearing  of  this,  takes 
refuge  with  friendly  barbarians.* 

Jovinus,  meanwhile,  is  proclaimed  emperor  at  Moguntiacum  ^ 
in  upper  Germany,  with  the  aid  of  Goar  the  Alan  and  Guntiar,^ 
a  Burgundian  chieftain.  On  the  advice  of  AttaJus,  Ataulf 
joins  him  with  his  forces.  But  Jovinus,  being  offended  at 
the  presence  of  Ataulf,  in  mysterious  language  blames  Attalus 
who  had  advised  Ataulf  to  join  him.  Sarus  also  is  on  the 
way  to  join  Jovinus,  but  Ataulf,  hearing  of  this,  collects  a  force 
of  10,000  men  and  waylays  Sarus,  whose  followers  numbered 
only  twenty-eight.  Sarus  fights  with  marvellous  heroism,  and 
is  with  difficulty  taken  alive  by  a  soldier,  who  threw  a  bag  over 
his  head,  and  afterwards  slain.  Sarus  had  revolted  from 
Honorius,  who  had  treated  the   murder   of   Sarus's    servant, 

^  The  doinestici  were  the  household  troops,  the  imperial  bodyguard. 

2  All  the  other  authorities  make  him  merely  Gerontius's  "dependent." 
The  word  TraTs  may  be  used  in  the  sense  of  "servant." 

3  Or  Arelatum  (mod.  Aries), 

^  According  to  some  accounts,  he  took  refuge  in  Spain, 
5  Ma,inz,  ^  Or  Gundicar, 


OLYMPIODORUS  139 

Bellerides,  as  a  matter  of  indifference  and  had  refused  to  find 
out  and  punish  his  murderer. 

Donatus  and  the  Huns,  and  the  skilfulness  of  their  kings  in 
shooting  with  the  bow.  The  author  relates  that  he  himself 
was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Donatus,  and  gives  a  tragic  account 
of  his  wanderings  and  perils  by  sea.  How  Donatus,  being 
deceived  by  an  oath,  was  unlawfully  put  to  death.  How 
Charaton,  the  first  of  the  kings,  being  incensed  at  the  murder, 
was  appeased  by  gifts  from  the  emperor.  Such  are  the  events 
of  the  first  decade  of  the  history. 

The  second  begins  as  follows.  Jovinus,  contrary  to  the 
advice  of  Ataulf,  proclaims  his  own  brother  Sebastian  Augustus. 
Ataulf,  deeply  offended,  thereupon  sends  envoys  to  Honorius, 
promising  to  send  him  the  heads  of  the  tyrants  and  offering 
to  make  peace.  Oaths  having  been  exchanged,  the  envoys 
return,  and  the  head  of  Sebastian  is  sent  to  the  emperor. 
Jovinus,  besieged  by  Ataulf,  surrenders,  is  sent  to  the  emperor 
and  executed  by  the  praetorian  prefect  Dardanus  with  his 
own  hand.  Both  heads  are  exposed  outside  Carthage,^  where 
those  of  Constantine  and  Julian,  of  Maximus  and  Eugenius, 
who  had  aspired  to  the  throne  during  the  reign  of  the  great 
Theodosius  and  had  met  with  the  same  fate,  had  already 
been  exposed. 

The  restoration  of  Placidia  to  her  brother  Honorius  is 
urgently  demanded  from  Ataulf  by  Constantius,  who  afterwards 
became  her  husband.  But  as  the  promises  made  to  him 
remain  unfulfilled,  especially  in  regard  to  the  supply  of  corn, 
he  refuses  to  give  her  back  and  prepares  for  war  instead  of 
peace. 

Ataulf,  when  requested  to  restore  Placidia,  asks  for  the 
corn  promised  him.  Although  those  who  had  promised  it  are 
unable  to  supply  it,  they  agree  to  do  so  if  Placidia  is  restored ; 
the  barbarian  makes  a  similar  pretence  of  complying.  In  the 
meantime  he  sets  out  for  Massilia,^  hoping  to  capture  it 
by  treachery.  But  having  been  severely,  almost  mortally, 
wounded  by  the  most  noble  Boniface,  he  returns  to  his  own 
quarters,  abandoning  the  city  which  joyfully  acclaims  and 
extols  Boniface.^ 

*  According  to  Bury,  New  Carthage  in  Spain.  ^  Marseilles. 

'  Distinguished  Roman  general,  count  of  Africa,  rival  of  Aetius,  and 
friend  of  St.  Augustine. 


140  OLYMPIODORUS 

Ataulf,  determined  to  marry  Placidia,  in  spite  of  the  request 
of  Constantius  for  her  restitution,  raises  his  demands  so  that, 
if  they  are  not  granted,  he  may  appear  to  have  a  good  excuse 
for  detaining  her. 

Constantius,  who  was  formerly  consul  elect,  is  created 
consul  at  Ravenna,  Constans  being  at  the  same  time  made 
consul  at  Constantinople.  Sufficient  gold  was  found  among 
the  property  of  Heraclian,  who  had  been  put  to  death  ^  as 
aspiring  to  the  throne,  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  consul- 
ship, although  the  amount  was  not  so  great  as  had  been 
expected.  The  amount  in  gold  which  was  found  was  about 
^£"4600,  and  the  value  of  the  real  estate  2000  litrac  (^^92,000). 
All  this  was  made  over  to  Constantius  by  Honorius  "  at  one 
asking."  Constantius,  as  he  rode  along,^  had  a  dejected  and 
sullen  appearance,  with  his  great  eyes  and  neck  and  broad 
head ;  his  whole  body  was  bent  over  his  horse  and  he  looked 
askance  on  either  side,  in  order  as  the  old  expression  has  it, 
"to  appear  worthy  of  empire."^  At  feasts  and  banquets, 
however,  he  was  agreeable  and  sociable,  and  often  even 
condescended  to  vie  with  the  mimes  who  performed  at  table. 

On  the  advice  and  with  the  assistance  of  Candidian  the 
marriage  of  Ataulf  with  Placidia  was  celebrated  at  the  begin- 
ning of  January  in  the  city  of  Narbo  (Narbonne),  in  the  house 
of  Ingenius,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens.  Placidia 
sat  in  the  inner  apartment  dressed  in  Roman  style  and  in 
royal  robes,  with  Ataulf  by  her  side,  wearing  a  woollen  tunic 
and  Roman  costume.  Amongst  other  wedding  presents  Ataulf 
gave  his  bride  fifty  beautiful  youths  dressed  in  silk,  each 
bearing  in  his  hands  two  very  large  dishes,  one  filled  with 
gold,  the  other  with  precious,  or  rather  priceless,  stones,  the 
spoils  of  Rome  when  it  was  sacked  by  the  Goths.  Then 
wedding-songs  were  sung,  Attains  leading  the  chorus,  accom- 
panied by  Rusticius  and  Phoebadius.  The  ceremony  ended 
with  great  demonstrations  of  joy  and  games,  in  which  Romans 
and  barbarians  alike  took  part. 

After  the  capture  of  Rome  by  the  Goths,  Albinus,  the  city 
prefect,  when  the  normal  condition  of  things  was  restored, 
reported  to  the  emperor  that  the  amount  of  corn  distributed 
to  the  people  was  insufficient,  since  their  number  was  increas- 

^  In  413.  ^  Others  take  -Kpohlois  to  mean,  "as  he  walked." 

'  Euripides,  Aeohcs  (frag.  2). 


OLYMPIODORUS  141 

ing,  as  many  as  14,000  strangers  having  passed  through  in 
one  day.^ 

Ataulf,  after  Placidia  had  borne  him  a  son  whom  he  called 
Theodosius,  courted  the  friendship  of  the  Romans  still  more, 
but  the  opposition  of  Constantius  and  his  supporters  made 
his  and  Placidia's  efforts  vain.  The  son  soon  died  and  his 
parents,  deeply  grieved,  buried  him  in  a  silver  coffer  in  a 
church  near  Barcino  (Barcelona).  Soon  afterwards  Ataulf 
himself  was  murdered,  while  looking  after  his  horses  in  the 
stable,  as  he  had  been  in  the  habit  of  doing.  He  was  slain 
by  a  certain  Goth  in  his  service,  named  Dubius,  who  had  long 
been  on  the  watch  for  an  opportunity  to  satisfy  an  old-standing 
hatred.  Dubius's  master,^  chief  of  a  Gothic  tribe,  had  been 
killed  by  Ataulf,  who  had  taken  Dubius  into  his  own  house- 
hold. Dubius,  to  avenge  his  first  master,  slew  his  second. 
Ataulf,  before  he  died,  ordered  his  brother  to  give  back 
Placidia  and,  if  possible,  to  cultivate  the  friendship  of  Rome. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Singeric,  the  brother  of  Sarus,  who 
secured  the  throne  by  violence  and  intrigue  rather  than  legally 
or  on  the  score  of  relationship.  He  put  to  death  Ataulf's 
children  by  a  former  marriage,  tearing  them  from  the  arms 
of  bishop  Sigesarus,  and  by  way  of  insult  compelled  Placidia 
to  walk  in  procession  in  front  of  his  horse  with  other  captives 
as  far  as  the  twelfth  milestone  from  the  city.  After  he  had 
reigned  seven  days  Singeric  was  slain  and  succeeded  by  the 
Gothic  chieftain  Walia. 

The  historian  relates  that  he  heard  from  a  person  of  dis- 
tinction named  Valerius  about  certain  silver  statues  that  were 
consecrated  to  keep  off  the  barbarians.  In  the  reign  of 
Constantius,  when  Valerius  was  governor  of  Thrace,  he 
received  information  of  the  whereabouts  of  a  treasure.  He 
proceeded  to  the  spot  and  learnt  from  the  inhabitants  that 
it  was  regarded  as  sacred,  and  that  certain  statues  had  been 
consecrated  there  in  accordance  with  ancient  rites.  Valerius 
reported  this  to  the  emperor,  who  gave  him  written  permission 
to  remove  them.  The  spot  was  excavated,  and  three  statues 
of  solid  silver  were  found,  lying  in  barbaric  guise,  with  arms 
akimbo,  clothed  in  parti-coloured  barbaric  raiment,  with  long 
hair,  turned  towards  the  north,  the  country  of  the  barbarians. 

^  Reading  rfraxOai.  Terex^ai  would  mean  that  14,000  children  were 
born  in  one  day  in  Rome,  which  is  absurd.  ^  Sarus  {see  p.  138). 


142  OLYMPIODORUS 

When  these  statues  were  removed,  the  Goths  a  few  days 
afterwards  first  overran  and  ravaged  Thrace,  and  a  Httle  later 
Huns  and  Sarmatians  made  inroads  into  Illyricum  and  Thrace 
itself;  for  these  consecrated  districts  lay  between  Thrace  and 
Illyricum,  and  from  the  number  of  the  statues  consecrated, 
they  appear  to  have  been  intended  as  a  protection  against 
these  barbarous  nations. 

The  historian  tells  us  of  the  sufferings  and  perils  of  his 
voyage.  He  says  also  that  he  landed  at  Athens,  and  that 
by  his  support  and  efforts  Leontius  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  sophistic,  although  he  did  not  desire  it.  Concerning 
the  philosopher's  cloak, ^  he  says  that  no  one  in  Athens, 
particularly  a  stranger,  was  allowed  to  wear  it,  unless  permitted 
to  do  so  by  the  general  vote  of  the  sophists,  and  unless  his 
right  had  been  confirmed  by  their  rules  and  regulations.  The 
following  were  the  rites  on  such  occasions.  All  newcomers 
(novices),  young  and  old,  were  taken  to  the  public  baths. 
Those  who  were  by  age  fit  to  wear  the  cloak  were  brought 
forward  by  the  scholastics  ^  who  escorted  them  ;  then,  while 
some  ran  in  front  and  pushed  them  back,  others,  running 
behind,  pushed  them  forward  and  resisted  them,  amid  shouts 
of  "Stop,  stop,  he  must  not  wash."  Those  who  pushed  back 
those  who  tried  to  hinder  the  progress  of  the  novice  were 
considered  to  be  victorious  in  the  contest.  After  a  consider- 
able time,  and  after  a  long  disputation  had  taken  place  in 
accordance  with  custom,  he  who  was  being  escorted  was  taken 
into  a  warm  room  and  washed.  Having  dressed  himself,  he 
received  permission  to  wear  the  cloak  on  his  way  from  the 
bath,  being  accompanied  by  a  numerous  and  distinguished 
throng.  Large  sums  are  voted  for  the  presidents  of  the 
schools,  who  are  called  Acromitae.^ 

The  Vandals  call  the  Goths  Truli,  because,  when  they  were 
hard  pressed  by  famine,  they  bought  a  irida  of  wheat  from 
the  Vandals  for  a  gold  coin.*  The  trula  does  not  contain 
more  than  a  third  of  a  pint. 

When  the  Vandals  were  ravaging  Spain,  the  Romans  who 

^  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  (Or.  20).     Photius's  account  is  rather  obscure. 

^  Must  mean  "sophists"  here,  not,  as  so  often  in  later  Greek,  "  lawyers." 

^  The  lexicon  of  Hesychius  interprets  the  word  as  ol  fxilCoves  ("the 
}.rtater"),  that  is  the  higher  classes  who  are  entitled  to  wear  the  cloak. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  reference  is  to  senior  pupils^  rather  than  to  teachers. 

*  The  aureus,  worth  about  twelve  shillings. 


OLYMPIODORUS  143 

took  refuge  in  the  fortified  cities  were  so  destitute  of  food 
that  they  were  driven  to  cannibalism.  A  woman  who  was 
the  mother  of  four  children  ate  them  all,  in  each  case  pre- 
tending that  she  did  so  to  provide  some  food  for  the  rest 
and  save  their  lives,  but  when  she  had  eaten  them  all  she 
was  stoned  to  death  by  the  people. 

Euplutius  the  chamberlain  is  sent  to  Walia,  king  of  the 
Goths,  to  make  a  treaty  of  peace  with  him  and  to  recover 
Placidia.  Walia  receives  him  kindly  and  on  receipt  of 
600,000  measures  of  corn,  Placidia  is  released  and  handed 
over  to  Euplutius  to  be  escorted  to  her  brother  Honorius. 

When  a  discussion  arose  in  Athens  how  books  could 
be  fastened  together  and  people  wanted  to  know  how  much 
glue  should  be  used,  Philtatius,  the  writer's  companion,  who 
was  well  acquainted  with  all  matters  connected  with  literature, 
showed  them  what  to  do.  A  statue  was  erected  in  his  honour 
by  the  grateful  citizens. 

About  the  oasis  the  author  relates  much  that  appears 
incredible.  First,  the  climate  is  so  healthy,  that  not  only 
do  none  of  the  inhabitants  suffer  from  epilepsy,  but  those 
who  come  from  other  parts  are  cured  of  it.  Next,  he  speaks 
of  the  vast  tracts  of  sand,  and  the  wells,  dug  200,  300,  some- 
times even  500  cubits  deep,  which  spirt  up  a  stream  of  water, 
from  which  the  husbandmen  who  have  taken  part  in  the 
work  in  turn  draw  water  to  irrigate  their  fields.  The  trees 
bear  fruit  perpetually,  and  the  corn  which  grows  there  is 
finer  than  any  other  and  whiter  than  snow.  There  are  some- 
times two  crops  of  barley  in  a  year  and  three  of  millet.  The 
inhabitants  water  their  little  plots  of  land  every  third  day  in 
summer,  every  sixth  day  in  winter,  which  makes  the  soil  very 
fertile.  Clouds  are  rarely,  if  ever,  seen.  About  the  clocks 
made  there.  The  author  says  that  the  oasis  was  formerly  an 
island,  which  had  been  detached  from  the  mainland,  and 
that  it  is  called  by  Herodotus  the  islands  of  the  blest,  but 
that  Herodorus  (who  wrote  the  lives  of  Orpheus  and  Musaeus) 
calls  it  Phaeacis.  He  argues  that  it  was  an  island,  first,  from 
the  fact  that  sea  shells  are  found  adhering  to  stones  upon 
the  mountain  which  leads  to  the  oasis  from  the  Thebaid, 
and,  secondly,  because  of  the  vast  quantity  of  sand,  which 
fills  three  oases.  For  he  tells  us  that  the  oases  are  three  in 
number,   two  large,    an    outer   and   an    inner,    opposite   each 


144  OLYMPIODORUS 

other  but  a  hundred  miles  apart,  while  the  third  is  small  and 
a  great  distance  from  the  other  two.  A  further  argument 
that  it  was  an  island  is  that  fish  are  often  found  that  have 
been  carried  there  by  birds,  and  the  remains  of  fish  that 
have  been  eaten,  so  that  one  may  conjecture  that  the  sea 
was  not  far  off.  The  author  says  also  that  Homer's  family 
belonged  to  the  Thebaid. 

During  the  eleventh  consulship  of  Honorius  and  the  second 
of  Constantius,  the  marriage  of  Placidia  was  arranged.  She 
herself  was  greatly  opposed  to  it,  which  incensed  Constantius 
against  her  household.  Nevertheless,  on  the  first  day  of  his 
consulship,  her  brother  the  emperor  Honorius  took  her  by  the 
hand  and,  although  she  protested,  delivered  her  over  to  Con- 
stantius, and  the  wedding  was  celebrated  with  great  magnifi- 
cence. They  had  two  children,  a  daughter  Honoria  and  a 
son  Valentinian,  who  at  the  urgent  request  of  Placidia  received 
the  title  Nobilissinms  during  the  lifetime  of  Honorius.  After 
the  death  of  the  latter  and  the  suppression  of  the  usurper 
John,^  he  became  emperor.  Honorius  unwillingly  agreed  to 
accept  Constantius  as  his  partner  in  the  empire,  and  Placidia 
received  the  title  of  Augusta  from  her  brother  and  her  husband. 
Theodosius  the  cousin  of  Honorius  and  emperor  of  the  East, 
to  whom  an  embassy  was  sent  to  inform  him  of  the  elevation 
of  Constantius,  refused  to  receive  it.  Constantius  soon  became 
tired  of  the  throne,  since  he  could  no  longer  come  and  go 
when  and  where  he  pleased,  and  his  dignity  forbade  him  to 
indulge  in  his  customary  amusements.  This  seriously  affected 
his  health ;  and,  after  he  had  been  on  the  throne  six  months, 
a  vision  appeared  to  him  and  addressed  him  with  the  words, 
"Six  are  gone,  the  seventh  begins."  He  died  of  pleurisy, 
and  with  him  died  the  indignation  aroused  by  the  refusal  to 
acknowledge  his  accession.  The  projected  attack  on  the  East 
abandoned.  Walia,  king  of  the  Goths,  dies  and  is  succeeded 
by  Theodoric.^ 

The  author  relates  various  perils  at  sea  from  which  he  barely 
escaped  with  his  life.     While  talking   of  a    marvellous    star 

^  He  was  pn'fnicerms  notariorum. 

2  The  first  important  representative  of  the  name,  a  West-Goth,  not  of 
course  to  be  confounded  with  the  famous  East-Goth  (Dietrich).  The  present 
Theodoric  was  king  of  the  West- Goths  from  418-451.  He  was  killed 
fighting  with  the  Romans  against  Attila  at  the  battle  of  Chalons. 


OLYMPIODORUS  145 

(called  Urania  ^  by  the  sailors),  he  was  leaning  heavily  against 
the  mast,  which  nearly  gave  way  and  precipitated  him  into  the 
water.  He  also  tells  of  a  parrot,  with  which  he  himself  lived 
twenty  years,  which  mimicked  nearly  all  the  acts  of  a  human 
being.  It  used  to  dance  and  sing,  call  people  by  their  names 
and  the  like.  He  also  relates  that,  when  he  was  staying  at 
Thebes  and  Soene  ^  for  the  sake  of  gathering  information, 
the  chiefs  and  prophets  of  the  barbarians  at  Talmis,^  called 
Blemmyes,"^  were  eager  to  meet  him  owing  to  his  reputation. 
''They  took  me  as  far  as  Talmis,"  he  says,  "that  I  might 
examine  the  country,  which  is  distant  five  days'  journey  from 
Philae  ^  as  far  as  the  city  called  Prima.  This  was  the  nearest 
city  of  the  Thebaid  to  barbarian  soil,  and  was  hence  called 
by  the  Romans  Prima  (first),  the  name  being  still  preserved 
although  it  has  long  been  in  possession  of  the  barbarians  with 
four  other  cities,  Phoenicon,  Chiris,  Thapis,  and  Talmis."  In 
this  district  he  heard  that  there  were  emerald  mines,  which 
furnished  an  abundant  supply  of  those  precious  stones  for  the 
Egyptian  kings.  The  prophets  of  the  barbarians  invited  him 
to  inspect  them,  but  this  was  impossible  without  the  king's 
permission. 

He  tells  a  wonderful  story  about  a  certain  Libanius,  an 
Asiatic,  who  appeared  at  Ravenna  during  the  reign  of  Honorius 
and  Constantius,  a  most  consummate  magician.  He  declared 
that  he  could  work  wonders  and  promised  to  perform  them 
against  the  barbarians  without  the  aid  of  soldiers.  After  his 
promise  had  been  put  to  the  test,  the  report  reached  the  ears 
of  Placidia,  who  threatened  to  apply  for  a  divorce  against 
Constantius,  unless  the  magician  and  infidel  were  removed. 
Libanius  was  accordingly  put  to  death.  Constantius  was  an 
Illyrian  from  Naisus*"  in  Dacia,  who,  having  served  in  numerous 
campaigns  from  the  time  of  'I'heodosius  the  Great,  was  after- 
wards raised  to  the  throne.  In  many  respects  he  was  worthy 
of  praise  and  of  a  generous  disposition,  until  his  marriage  with 
Placidia,  when  he  became  grasping  and  covetous.     After  his 

^  Accordin;^  to  some,  St.  Elmo's  fire. 
^  Modern  Assouan. 
3  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile. 
*  An  Aelhiopian  people,  mod.  Barabras. 

^  Small  island  in  the  Nile  with  a  town  of  the  same  name,  where  Isis  and 
Osiris  were  said  to  be  buried. 
^  Mod.  Nissa,  Nisch  in  Serbia. 

VOL.  I.  K 


146  OLYMPIODORUS 

death,  numerous  petitions  against  him  from  those  who  had 
been  financially  injured  by  him  were  presented  at  Ravenna. 
But  the  indifference  of  Honorius  and  Placidia's  intimacy  with 
him  made  these  petitions  useless  and  thwarted  the  power  of 
justice. 

After  the  death  of  Constantius,  Honorius  lavished  the 
greatest  affection  upon  his  sister,  which,  however,  soon  turned 
to  mistrust  and  hatred,  aggravated  by  the  intrigues  of  Spadusa 
and  Elpidia  (Placidia's  nurse),  in  whom  she  had  the  greatest 
confidence,  and  Leontius  her  steward.  There  were  frequent 
riots  in  Ravenna,  where  a  large  number  of  barbarians,  who 
sided  with  her  in  consequence  of  her  marriage  with  Ataulf  and 
with  Constantius,  frequently  came  to  blows  with  the  imperial 
guards.  At  length  the  quarrel  became  so  bitter  that,  as  the 
result  of  the  hatred  instead  of  love  which  her  brother  now  felt 
for  her,  Placidia,  finding  herself  unable  to  resist,  retired  with 
her  children  to  Constantinople.  Boniface  alone  remained  loyal 
to  her,  sent  her  money  when  he  was  able  from  Africa  where 
he  was  governor,  and  rendered  her  every  service  in  his  power. 
He  also  subsequently  assisted  her  to  regain  the  throne. 

Honorius  died  of  dropsy  on  the  27th  of  August,  and  an 
announcement  of  the  news  was  sent  to  the  East.  In  the  mean- 
time, a  certain  John  seized  the  throne.  While  his  inauguration 
was  taking  place,  a  voice  was  heard,  as  if  proceeding  from  some 
oracle  uttering  the  words,  "  He  falls,  he  does  not  stand," 
whereupon  the  people,  as  if  to  break  the  spell,  shouted,  "  He 
stands,  he  does  not  fall." 

Boniface  was  an  heroic  soldier,  who  often  distinguished 
himself  against  the  barbarians,  sometimes  with  large,  sometimes 
with  small  forces,  sometimes  even  in  single  combat ;  in  a  word, 
he  entirely  freed  Africa  from  many  barbarous  nations.  He 
was  a  lover  of  justice  and  despised  wealth. 

The  author  says  that  each  of  the  large  houses  in  Rome 
contained  all  the  conveniences  of  a  well-arranged  city — a  hippo- 
drome, fora,  temples,  fountains,  and  baths.  This  leads  him 
to  exclaim  :  "  One  house  is  a  town ;  a  city  has  ten  thousand 
towns."  There  were  also  public  baths  of  great  size ;  those 
called  Antoninianae  had  1600  seats  for  the  convenience  of 
bathers,  made  of  polished  marble ;  those  called  Diocletianae 
twice  as  many.  The  wall  of  Rome,  according  to  the 
measurement  of  Amnion  the  geometrician,  at  the  time  when 


OLYMPIODORUS  147 

it  was  first  overrun  by  the  Goths,  was  twenty-one  miles  in 
circumference. 

Many  Roman  families  received  yearly  incomes  from  their 
property  to  the  amount  of  about  forty  centenarii  of  gold 
(^160,000),  not  mentioning  the  corn  and  wine  and  other 
produce,  which,  if  sold,  would  equal  a  third  of  the  above 
amount.  Families  next  in  rank  enjoyed  an  income  of  fifteen 
or  ten  centenarii  (^60,000-^40,000).  Probus,  the  son  of 
Olympius,  who  was  prefect  of  the  city  during  the  tyranny  of 
John,  spent  twelve  centenarii  of  gold  (^48,000).  Before  the 
taking  of  Rome,  Symmachus  the  orator,^  a  senator  of  moderate 
rank,  and  a  certain  Maximus,  one  of  the  wealthy  citizens,  spent 
twenty  (;^8o,ooo)  and  forty  (;,^i 60,000)  centenarii  respectively 
on  their  sons'  praetorships.  The  shows  given  by  the  praetors 
lasted  a  week. 

The  author  says  that  the  scene  of  the  wanderings  of  Odysseus 
was  not  the  coast  of  Sicily,  but  the  farthest  shores  of  Italy ;  that, 
after  crossing  the  ocean,  he  descended  into  Hades  and  made 
many  perilous  voyages  over  that  sea ;  an  opinion  which  he 
attempts  to  confirm  by  various  arguments.  I  have  read  many 
other  writers  who  agree  with  him. 

Placidia  is  sent  back  with  her  children  from  Constantinople 
by  Theodosius  to  oppose  the  tyrant  John.  She  is  confirmed 
in  her  title  of  Augusta,  and  Valentinian  in  that  of  Nobilissimus. 
They  set  out  accompanied  by  an  army,  both  horse  and  foot, 
under  the  command  of  Ardaburius,  his  son  Aspar,-  and 
Candidian.^  At  Thessalonica  Helion,  the  master  of  offices, 
who  had  been  sent  by  Theodosius,  put  the  royal  robes  on 
Valentinian,  then  only  five  years  old.  On  his  way  home, 
Ardaburius  is  captured  by  the  soldiers  of  John  and  taken  to 
the  tyrant,  with  whom  he  becomes  on  friendly  terms.*  His 
son  Aspar  and  Placidia  were  meanwhile  overwhelmed  by  grief 
and  anxiety ;  but  Candidian,  by  capturing  many  towns  and 
winning   great   renown,  dispelled  their  grief  and  raised  their 

^  Quintus  Aurelius  S.,  flourished  about  400.  He  was  prefect  of  Rome 
and  consul,  and  the  author  of  letters  and  speeches,  the  former  of  which 
and  some  fragments  of  the  latter  are  extant. 

2  It  was  by  the  aid  of  this  Aspar  that  Leo  I  obtained  the  empire  of  the 
East  (457),  and  afterwards  ungratefully  murdered  him.  His  father  and  son 
were  both  named  Ardaburius. 

^  One  of  Honorius's  generals. 

^  He  pretended  to  be  false  to  Placidia. 


148  THEODORE   OF  ANTIOCH 

spirits.  The  tyrant  John  was  put  to  death,  and  Placidia  with 
the  Caesar  her  son  entered  Ravenna.  HeHon,  the  master  of 
offices  and  a  patrician,  took  possession  of  Rome,  and  in  the 
midst  of  a  vast  throng  of  people  arrayed  the  seven-year-old 
Valentinian  in  the  royal  robes.     At  this  point  the  history  ends. 

LXXXI 

Read  three  short  treatises  by  Theodore  ^  On  Persian  Magic 
aud  wherein  it  differs  from  Christianity,^  dedicated  to  Mastubius, 
an  Armenian  and  suffragan  bishop.  In  the  first  book  the 
accursed  doctrine  of  the  Persians,  introduced  by  Zarades,^ 
concerning  Zuruam,"*  whom  he  makes  the  beginning  of  all  things 
and  calls  Fortune,  is  expounded ;  how  that,  having  offered  a 
libation  to  beget  Hormisdas,^  he  begot  both  him  and  Satan. 
Of  the  mixing  of  blood. *"  Having  set  forth  this  impious  and 
disgraceful  doctrine  in  plain  words  he  refutes  it  in  the  first 
book.  In  the  other  two  books  he  discusses  the  Christian  faith, 
beginning  from  the  creation  of  the  world  and  at  the  same  time 
rapidly  going  down  to  the  law  of  grace.'' 

This  Theodore  is  believed  to  be  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia,  since 
he  mentions  with  approval  the  heresy  of  Nestorius,  especially 
in  the  third  book.  He  also  foolishly  talks  of  the  restoration  of 
sinners  to  their  former  condition. 

LXXXII 

Read  the  History  of  the  events  that  happened  after  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  by  Dexippus,®  in  four  books ; 
also  his  Historical  Epitome,  a   chronicle   going  down  to  the 

1  Cod.  XXXVIII. 

^  They  were  directed  against  Zoroastrianism,  which  was  making  some 
way  at  the  time. 

^  Zoroaster  (Zarathustra). 

■*  Zervan,  the  principle  of  infinite  time,  from  which  both  Ormuzd  and 
Ahriman,  the  good  and  evil  spirits,  were  supposed  to  have  emanated.  The 
sect  of  the  Zervanists  thus  endeavoured  to  avoid  Zoroastrian  dualism. 

^  Ormuzd. 

^  Supposed  to  be  a  reference  to  Gnostic  supporters  of  Zoroastrianism. 

'  The  Christian  era. 

^  Publius  Herennius  D.  (flourished  254-278),  rhetorician,  statesman,  and 
historian,  a  native  of  Athens,  who  distinguished  himself  against  the  Goths 
(269)  when  they  attacked  that  city.  Of  the  fragments  preserved  the  chief 
is  an  address  to  the  soldiers  of  Athens  {see  Gibbon,  ch.  10,  i.  265,  266, 
Bury's  edition). 


DEXIPPUS  149 

time  of  Claudius.^  Also  read  his  Scythica,  describing  the  wars 
between  the  Scythians  ^  and  Romans  and  other  things  of  note. 
His  style  is  free  from  redundancies,  massive,^  and  dignified ; 
he  might  be  called  a  second  Thucydides,  although  he  writes 
more  clearly.  His  characteristics  are  chiefly  shown  in  his  last- 
mentioned  work. 

In  his  record  of  events  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  he 
relates  how  the  throne  fell  to  his  brother  Arrhidaeus,  the  son 
of  Philip  of  Macedon  and  Philinna  of  Larissa.  The  yet  unborn 
child  of  Roxana  by  Alexander,  should  it  be  a  son,  was  to  be 
associated  with  him  in  the  government,  together  with  Perdiccas, 
who  was  chosen  by  the  Macedonians  to  administer  the  affairs 
of  the  empire.  The  division  of  Alexander's  empire.  In  Asia, 
Ptolemy  Lagus  obtained  the  government  of  Egypt,  Libya,  and 
the  country  beyond  adjacent  to  Egypt,  Cleomenes,  who  had 
been  appointed  by  Alexander  satrap  of  this  district,  being 
made  subordinate  to  him.  Laomedon  of  Mytilene  obtained 
Syria ;  Philotas  Cilicia ;  Pithon  Media ;  Eumenes  Cappadocia, 
Paphlagonia,  and  the  shores  of  the  Euxine  as  far  as  Trapezus 
(Trebizond);  Antigonus  Pamphylia  and  Cilicia  as  far  as  Phrygia; 
Asander  Caria ;  Menander  Lydia ;  Leonnatus  the  Phrygian 
Hellespont.  In  Europe,  Lysimachus  obtained  Thrace  and 
the  Chersonese ;  Antipater  the  whole  of  Macedonia,  Greece, 
Illyria,  the  country  of  the  Triballi  and  the  Agrianes,  and  all 
the  mainland  over  which  he  had  been  appointed  sole  com- 
mander from  the  time  of  Alexander.  The  general  charge  of 
affairs  and  the  defence  of  the  kingdom  was  entrusted  to 
Craterus ;  Perdiccas  obtained  the  chiliarchy  ^  of  Hephaestion, 
the  highest  dignity  amongst  the  Macedonians. 

Porus  and  Taxilus  were  rulers  of  India,  to  Porus  being  allotted 
the  country  between  the  Indus  and  the  Hydaspes,  the  rest  to 
Taxilus.  Pithon  received  the  country  of  the  neighbouring 
peoples,  except  the  Paramisades.  The  districts  near  the 
Caucasian  mountains,  conterminous  with  India,  were  given  to 
the  Bactrian  Oxyartes,  the  father  of  Roxana,  whose  son,  born 
after  his  father's  death,  was  also  called  Alexander.  Siburtius 
ruled  the  Arachosians  and  Gedrosians ;   Stasanor  of  Soli  the 

1  268.  -  The  Goths. 

3  Or  "grave"  (07/fos),  "dignified." 

^  Commandership  of  the  select  cavalry  corps  called  'ETalpoj,  a  sort  of 
bodyguard. 


I50  DIONYSIUS  OF  HALICARNASSUS 

Arei  and  Drangi ;  Philip  the  Sogdiani ;  Radaphernes  the 
Hyrcanians ;  Neoptolemus  the  Carmanians ;  Peucestes  the 
Persians.  Oropius  was  ruler  of  Sogdiana,  not  by  inheritance  from 
his  father,  but  by  favour  of  Alexander.  When  in  consequence 
of  a  revolt  he  was  accused  and  threatened  with  the  loss  of  his 
kingdom,  he  held  it  in  conjunction  with  Philip.  Babylon  was 
given  to  Seleucus,  Mesopotamia  to  Archelaus.  Such  were  the 
countries  and  their  rulers  as  distributed  by  Perdiccas  after 
the  death  of  Alexander.  In  this  and  other  parts  of  his  narrative 
Dexippus  is  generally  in  agreement  with  Arrian.^ 

LXXXIII 

Read  the  twenty  books  of  the  Histories  of  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus.2  He  begins  with  the  arrival  of  Aeneas  in  Italy 
after  the  capture  of  Troy,  describes  in  detail  the  foundation  of 
Rome,  the  birth  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  and  other  events 
down  to  the  war  of  the  Romans  with  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus. 
The  work  ends  at  the  third  year  of  the  128th  Olympiad,  where, 
the  author  says,  the  history  by  Polybius  of  Megalopolis  begins. 
Dionysius  flourished  in  the  Augustan  age,  since  he  tells  us  that 
he  sailed  to  Italy  after  the  end  of  the  civil  war  between  Antony 
and  Augustus,  and  lived  there  for  twenty-two  years.  During 
this  time  he  acquired  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
language  and  of  Roman  antiquities,  and,  having  thoroughly 
equipped  himself  with  materials,  he  began  to  write  his  history. 
His  style  and  diction  are  marked  by  innovation,  which  drives 
the  narrative  out  of  the  beaten  track,  but  his  fondness  for  detail 
produces  a  certain  simplicity  of  sentiment,  so  that  the  language 
does  not  seem  to  be  carried  away  into  harshness  and  un- 
pleasantness. He  is  fond  of  digressions  which  relieve  the 
reader  and  prevent  his  becoming  tired  of  history,  and  refresh 
and   revive   him.     In  a  word,  the  elegance   of  his  style,  the 

1  See  Cod.  XCII. 

^  Rhetorician  and  historian.  He  came  to  Rome  in  30  B.C.  and  remained 
there  till  his  death  (7  B.C.).  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  rhetorical 
works,  several  of  which  are  extant,  the  most  important  being  that  on  the 
ancient  Greek  orators.  Of  the  twenty  books  of  the  History  {Roman 
Antiqtiities)  eleven  have  been  preserved,  going  down  to  441  B.C.,  the  period 
of  the  decemvirs.  It  is  a  rhetorical  production,  the  chief  object  of  which 
is  to  represent  the  Romans  as  superior  to  the  Greeks,  while  at  the  same 
time  he  soothes  the  vanity  of  the  latter  by  insisting  upon  the  Greek  origin 
of  the  former. 


HERACLIAN   OF  CHALCEDON  151 

« 

admixture   of  detail   and   digression,  soften  the  composition, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  harshness. 

LXXXIV 

Also  read  the  same  author's  Synopsis  of  the  above  twenty 
books  in  five  volumes.  In  this  his  style  is  more  elegant  but 
not  nearly  so  agreeable ;  at  the  same  time  the  work  is  more 
useful,  since  nothing  is  inserted  except  what  is  absolutely 
necessary.  From  his  style,  concise  and  free  from  redundancies, 
he  may  be  described  as  a  king  laying  down  the  law ;  his  com- 
position and  diction  send  forth  a  sound  which  reaches  the  ears 
of  the  hearer  somewhat  more  harshly.  His  manner  is  not 
unsuitable  for  synopsis,  but  by  no  means  adapted  for  a  perfect 
and  complete  history.  It  is  evident  that  the  writer  lived  before 
Dion  Coccaeus  ^  and  Appian  -  of  Alexandria,  who  also  wrote 
on  Roman  history. 

LXXXV 

Read  the  twenty  books  of  Heraclian,^  bishop  of  Chalcedon, 
Against  the  Manichaeans^  His  style  is  concise,  free  from 
redundancies,  lofty,  not  wanting  in  clearness,  at  the  same  time 
tempered  with  dignity.  He  combines  atticism  with  ordinary 
language,  like  a  teacher  of  boys  entering  into  a  contest  of 
superatticism.  He  refutes  the  Gospel,  Book  of  the  Giants,  and 
the  Treasures  of  the  Manichaeans.  He  also  gives  a  list  of  those 
who  wrote  against  the  Manichaean  impiety  before  him — 
Hegemonius,  who  wrote  out  the  disputation  of  Archelaus 
against  Manes ;  Titus, ^  who  was  supposed  to  be  an  opponent 
of  the  Manichaeans,  whereas  he  rather  attacked  the  writings 
of  Addas  ;^  George  of  Laodicea,^  who  uses  nearly  the  same 

^  Dio  Cassias  ;  see  Cod.  LXXI. 

2  Cod.  LVir. 

3  Nothing  seems  to  be  known  of  him. 

*  Their  system  was  dualistic,  recognizing  two  principles,  good  and  evil; 
the  first  the  author  of  man's  spiritual,  the  second  of  his  corporeal  nature. 
Man  had  two  souls,  one  intellectual  and  rational,  the  other  evil.  They  held 
that  the  souls  of  men,  animals  and  plants  were  co-eternal  with  God  ;  that 
baptism  was  useless  ;  that  man  was  not  free  ;  that  Christ  was  the  material 
sun  enlightening  the  world  ;  that  all  religions  were  indifferent. 

^  Bishop  of  Bostra  in  Arabia  Auranitis  (362-371), 

6  One  of  the  three  first  disciples  of  Manes. 

'  335-347. 


152  JOHN   CHRYSOSTOM 

arguments  as  Titus  against  the  impious  heresy ;  Serapion, 
bishop  of  Thmuis ;  ^  lastly,  Diodorus,^  who  wrote  twenty-five 
books  against  the  Manichaeans,  in  the  first  seven  of  which  he 
imagines  that  he  is  refuting  the  Living  Gospel  of  Manes,  instead 
of  the  work  of  Addas  named  Modion,^  as  is  really  the  case.  In 
the  remaining  books  he  explains  and  clears  up  the  meaning  of 
certain  passages  in  the  Scriptures  which  the  Manichaeans  were 
in  the  habit  of  appropriating  to  support  their  own  views.  Such 
is  his  account  of  Diodorus.  Any  statements  in  the  works  of 
these  Fathers  (as  the  pious  Heraclian  calls  them)  that  do  not 
appear  to  be  sufficiently  emphatic,  he  briefly  confirms,  carefully 
supplies  what  is  missing,  and  quotes  with  approval  in  their 
entirety  passages  which  are  adequate  for  the  purpose,  adding 
further  reflections  of  his  own. 

The  man  is  full  of  philosophical  vigour,  and  is  admirably 
equipped  with  the  theoretical  knowledge  of  other  branches  of 
learning.  Hence  he  energetically  combats  and  overthrows 
the  trifling  fables  of  Manichaeus,*  and  from  the  consideration 
of  what  exists  refutes  the  fabulous  nonsense  about  Being  (thai 
which  is). 

This  treatise  against  the  Manichaeans  was  written  at  the 
request  of  a  certain  Achillius,  whom  the  author  calls  his 
faithful  and  beloved  son.  This  Achillius,  seeing  that  the 
Manichaean  heresy  was  growing,  begged  that  it  might  be  pub- 
licly refuted,  and  this  work  was  written,  an  unexceptionable 
triumph  over  impiety.  This  most  pious  Heraclian  flourished 
in  .  .  . 

LXXXVI 

Read  the  Letters  written  by  the  holy  Father  St.  John 
Chrysostom  to  different  people  after  his  unjust  and  inhuman 
banishment.  The  most  useful  of  them  are  the  seventeen 
addressed  to  the   pious   deaconess   Olympias,^  and   those   to 

^  In  Egypt.     The  work  is  still  extant. 

^  Presbyter  of  Antioch  and  bishop  of  Tarsus.  The  chief  "  founder  of  the 
rational  school  of  Scriptural  interpretation." 

^  "  Bushel,"  referring  to  St.  Mark  iv.  19. 

*  Manes  {c.  240-274),  or  Mani,  the  founder  of  the  sect. 

^  O.  the  younger  (<f.  368-before  420),  deaconess  of  Cons!antinople. 
After  Chrysostom's  final  expulsion,  she  seems  to  have  left  the  city,  and 
to  have  led  a  wandering  life,  being  subjected  to  much  persecution  on 
account  of  her  friendship  with  him. 


ACHILLES  TATIUS  153 

Innocent,!  pope  of  Rome,  in  which  he  relates  all  that  had 
happened  to  him,  as  far  as  he  was  able  to  do  so  in  the  form 
of  letters.  These  letters  are  characteristic  of  the  man.  The 
style  is  brilliant,  clear,  persuasive,  somewhat  florid,  and  agree- 
able. The  letters  to  Olympias,  however,  seem  to  have  been 
written  with  greater  care ;  the  importance  of  the  matters  dis- 
cussed, to  which  the  epistolary  style  is  not  adapted,  necessitates 
a  corresponding  dignity  of  composition. 

LXXXVII 

Read  the  Adventures  of  Clitophon  and  Leucippe  by  Achilles 
Tatius,  of  Alexandria,^  in  eight  books.  It  is  a  dramatic  work, 
introducing  some  unseemly  love  episodes.  The  diction  and 
composition  are  excellent,  the  style  distinct,  and  the  figures  of 
speech,  whenever  they  are  employed,  are  well  adapted  to  the 
purpose.  The  periods  as  a  rule  are  aphoristic,  clear  and 
agreeable,  and  soothing  to  the  ear.  But  the  obscenity  and 
impurity  of  sentiment  impair  his  judgment,  are  prejudicial  to 
seriousness,  and  make  the  story  disgusting  to  read  or  some- 
thing to  be  avoided  altogether.  Except  for  the  names  of  the 
characters  and  his  abominable  indecency,  the  story,  in  method 
of  treatment  and  invention,  has  a  great  resemblance  to  the 
Aethiopica  of  Heliodorus. 

LXXXVIII 

Read  an  account  of  the  Proceedings  of  the  Synod  of  Nicaeay^ 
in  the  form  of  a  history,  in  three  volumes.  The  author  states 
that  Hosius,*  bishop  of  Cordova,  and  Viton  and  Vincent,  two 
Roman  priests,  were  present  as  legates  on  the  part  of  Silvester, 
pope  of  Rome,^  together  with  Eustathius,^  patriarch  of  Antioch, 

^  Innocent  I,  bishop  of  Rome  (402-417). 

^  Probably  lived  in  the  third  century  A.D.    The  complete  work  is  extant. 

^  By  Gelasius  of  Cyzicus,  who  probably  flourished  in  the  second  half  of 
the  fifth  century.  The  work,  which  is  still  extant,  is  considered  vakieless 
as  an  historical  authority. 

*  Appointed  about  300,  died  about  358  He  was  sent  by  Constantine 
in  324  to  Alexandria,  on  a  mission  to  reconcile  Arius  and  Alexander, 
bishop  of  Alexandria.  He  was  Consfantine's  adviser  on  theological 
matters,  and  is  supposed  to  have  taken  an  important  part  in  drawing  up 
the  symbol  of  faith  at  the  synod. 

^  314-335-  . 

^  Born  at  Side  in  Pamphylia  and  died  at  Philippi  in  Macedonia  (337), 
formerly  bishop  of  Beroea.  He  was  exiled  in  consequence  of  a  false  charge 
brought  against  bim  by  the  Arians,  of  whom  he  was  a  bitter  opponent. 


154  GELASIUS  OF  CYZICUS 

while  Alexander  the  priest  represented  Metrophanes  of  Con- 
stantinople ;  Silvester,  who  was  more  than  a  hundred  years  old, 
in  consequence  of  his  great  age  was  unable  to  be  present. 
Alexander,  bishop  of  Alexandria,^  also  attended,  together  with 
Athanasius,  who  afterwards  succeeded  him  in  the  episcopate, 
Macarius,^  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  and  a  number  of  other  bishops 
and  priests.  The  synod  was  summoned  in  the  sixteenth  year 
of  the  reign  of  Constantine,  and  its  proceedings  lasted  six 
years,  until  he  had  reigned  twenty-one  years  and  six  months. 

The  author  relates  that  Arius  was  condemned  and  anathe- 
matized, but  again  endeavoured  to  obtain  admission  to  the 
Church,  in  which  he  was  supported  by  Eusebius,^  bishop  of 
Nicomedia,  and  Eutocius  the  Arian,  an  ordained  priest,  whom 
the  emperor's  sister  Constantia  commended  to  her  brother  on 
her  deathbed.  Although  these  endeavoured  to  bring  back 
Arius  to  the  Church,  divine  justice  did  not  permit  its  enemy 
to  insult  its  temple  and  its  shrine.  He  was  condemned  to 
die  in  the  latrines  on  the  very  day  when  he  and  his  supporters 
had  resolved  to  profane  the  Church  of  God  and  His  holy  rites 
by  his  entrance.  His  death  took  place  in  a  public  place,  the 
latrines  being  near  the  forum.  The  author  states  that  Con- 
stantine the  Great  rejoiced  that  the  incorruptible  judge  God 
had  solved  the  question  by  his  sentence,  and  wrote  a  number 
of  letters,  recording  his  opinion  of  the  justice  of  the  end  that 
had  overtaken  Arius.  In  this  the  author's  account  agrees  with 
those  of  Athanasius  the  Great,  Theodoret,  and  many  others. 
Some,  however,  think  that  Arius  came  by  his  disgraceful 
end,  not  in  the  reign  of  Constantine,  but  in  that  of  his  son 
Constantius. 

Such  is  the  contents  of  this  book.  In  another  copy,  con- 
taining the  same  account,  the  title  gives  the  name  of  the 
author  as  Gelasius,  bishop  of  Caesarea*  in  Palestine.    The  style 

^  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  (312-326).  He  excommunicated  the  Arians 
and  caused  their  doctrines  to  be  condemned  at  the  synod. 

'  Bishop  from  about  311  to  between  331  and  335.  Helena,  the  mother 
of  Constantine  the  Great,  visited  Jerusalem  during  his  episcopate  (325). 

^  Successively  bishop  of  Berytus,  Nicomedia,  and  Constantinople. 
Exiled  by  Constantine,  he  was  recalled  through  the  influence  of  the 
Arians,  and  became  the  bitter  enemy  of  Athanasius,  whose  banishment 
he  procured.  He  became  bishop  of  Constantinople  in  341,  his  advance- 
ment being  due  to  the  patronage  of  Constantia,  the  emperor's  sister.  He 
drew  up  nearly  all  the  Arian  formulae. 

*  Tiie  question  of  the  Gelasii  is  very  obscure  {see  also  Cod.  CII). 


GELASIUS  OF  CYZICUS  155 

is  mean  and  common.  Who  this  Gelasius  was,  I  have  been 
unable  to  discover  for  certain,  since  up  to  the  present  I  have 
met  with  three  bishops  of  Caesarea  named  Gelasius,  and  have 
at  least  read  the  works  of  two.  One  of  these  works  is  a 
polemic  Against  the  A}wmoeans}  the  two  others,  one  of  which 
we  have  just  referred  to,  deal  with  ecclesiastical  matters.  The 
title,  where  we  have  found  it,  is  Three  Books  of  Ecclesiastical 
History  by  GeLisius,  Bishup  of  Caesarea  i.i  Palestine. 

The  work  begins  as  follows :  The  proceedings  of  the  holy, 
great,  and  universal  synod  of  bishops,  assembled,  so  to  speak, 
from  all  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  and  Persia,  and 
so  on.  It  ends  with  the  death  of  Constantine  the  Great,  at 
the  time  when  he  received  remission  of  sins  by  divine  baptism, 
whereby  the  stains  of  guilt  such  as  all  men  contract  in  life 
were  washed  off.  The  author  says  that  he  was  baptized  and 
initiated  into  the  holy  mysteries  by  an  orthodox  priest,  not,  as 
some  state,  by  a  heretic.  His  baptism  was  delayed,  because 
he  had  earnestly  desired  to  be  baptized  in  the  waters  of  Jordan. 
The  writer  states  that  he  lived  in  the  time  of  Basiliscus,^  who 
seized  the  throne  after  Zeno  had  been  driven  out,  and  that  he 
found  and  read  the  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  council 
written  on  an  old  parchment,  while  living  in  his  father's  house. 
From  his  recollections  of  this,  and  with  the  aid  of  other 
writings  which  supplied  him  with  useful  information,  he  com- 
piled his  history.  He  also  mentions  and  cites  some  passages 
from  a  certain  Gelasius,  whom  he  also  calls  Rufmus.  He  says 
that  he  was  a  native  of  Cyzicus,  and  that  his  father  was  a 
priest  in  the  same  place.  So  says  the  author  of  this  work, 
and  such  is  its  contents. 

LXXXIX 

The  other  book,  which  I  have  referred  to  above,  is  entitled 
Preface  of  the  Bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Palestine  to  the  Continuation 
of  the  History  of  Eusebius  Pamphili.  It  begins  as  follows  : 
Others  who  have  applied  themselves  to  writing  and  have 
determined  to  hand  down  to  posterity  a  record  of   historical 

^  Those  who  taught  that  the  Son  was  "dissimilar"  and  of  different 
substance  from  the  Father.  The  leaders  of  the  sect  were  Aetius  and 
Eunomius. 

2  Emperor  475-477. 


156  LIBANIUS 

events,  and  so  on.  The  author  states  that  he  was  encouraged 
to  write  the  work  by  his  uncle  Cyril,^  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  I 
have  read  elsewhere  that  this  Cyril  and  Gelasius  translated  the 
history  of  Rufinus  ^  the  Roman  into  Greek,  but  did  not  com- 
pose any  history  of  their  own.  It  is  evident  that  this  Gelasius 
was  older  than  the  other,  if  he  flourished  in  the  time  of  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem.  He  also  certainly  differs  from  him  in  the 
greater  eloquence  of  his  language,  although  both  are  inferior 
to  the  author  of  the  treatise  Against  the  Anomoeans,  also  called 
bishop  of  Palestine.  For  the  latter  Gelasius,  by  his  diction, 
learning,  and  logical  methods,  his  use  of  which,  however,  is 
somewhat  inept,  leaves  the  other  two  far  behind,  whose  style 
appears  to  be  much  inferior.  I  have  not  yet  been  able  to  learn 
whether  any  of  these  is  the  author  of  the  work  referred  to,  or 
who  compiled  it  and  supplemented  it  by  his  own  additions. 

XC 

Read  two  volumes  of  Libanius.^  The  author's  imaginary 
speeches,  written  for  the  purpose  of  giving  practice  in  oratory, 
are  more  useful  than  the  rest.  The  excessive  elaboration  and 
over-nicety  of  the  latter  impair  their  native  and  so  to  say  spon- 
taneous grace  and  charm,  and  destroy  their  clearness.  Much 
obscurity  is  also  caused  by  parentheses,  and  sometimes  by  the 
omission  of  what  is  indispensable.  In  other  respects  he  is 
a  canon  and  model  of  Attic  style.  His  letters  also  have  a 
considerable  reputation.  Several  other  works  of  different 
kinds  are  also  ascribed  to  him. 

^  315-386,  bishop  348.  He  was  exiled  for  several  years  by  Arian  in- 
trigues, but  recalled  by  Julian  the  Apostate.  His  extant  Catecheses  contain 
the  oldest  and  most  concise  abridgement  of  Christian  doctrine. 

^  Rufinus  Tyrannius  or  Toranus  (345-410),  born  at  Concordia,  a  small 
town  in  Italy.  He  is  called  "of  Aquileia,"  where  he  was  baptized,  and 
entered  a  monastery.  He  is  chiefly  known  for  his  quarrel  with  Jerome 
about  his  translation  of  various  works  of  Origen.  He  was  condemned  by 
pope  Anastasius,  and  died  in  Sicily.  He  was  the  author  of  a  large  number 
of  translations  and  other  works. 

^  Famous  sophist  (314-393).  Brought  up  at  Athens,  he  was  professor  of 
rhetoric  at  Constantinople,  where  he  had  as  pupils  St.  Basil  and  St.  John 
Chrysostom.  Much  of  his  work  is  extant,  consisting  of  purely  rhetorical 
exercises  and  instructions,  actual  speeches  on  various  subjects,  a  life  of 
Demosthenes  and  arguments  of  his  speeches,  and  extensive  correspondence. 
He  was  a  pagan. 


ARRIAN  157 

XCI 

Read  the  History  of  the  Reign  of  Alexander  by  Arrian  ^  in 
seven  books.  It  relates  how  he  made  a  treaty  with  the 
Athenians  and  the  rest  of  the  Greeks  with  the  exception  of 
the  Lacedaemonians ;  how  he  crossed  over  into  Asia  and 
defeated  the  Persians  in  three  battles.  At  the  Granicus  ^  he 
routed  the  satraps  of  Darius,  who  had  an  army  of  20,000  horse 
and  almost  as  many  infantry ;  at  Issus  ^  he  put  Darius  himself 
and  his  army  to  flight  and  captured  his  wife  and  children ;  at 
Arbela  (or  Gaugamela)  *  Darius  was  finally  defeated,  and  while 
trying  to  escape  was  seized  and  put  to  death  by  his  own 
soldiers.  Bessus,  who  succeeded  him,  was  mutilated  and  slain 
by  Alexander  for  his  treason  towards  Darius.  How  Alexander 
was  wounded  seven  times  in  battle  and  how  he  carried  off  the 
royal  treasure  at  Pasargadae.^  Being  persuaded  that  Philotas 
was  conspiring  against  him,  he  put  him  to  death  with  his  father 
Parmenio.  Alexander  conquers  Sogdiana  ^  and  defeats  the 
Asiatic  Scythians.  How  Clitus  was  murdered  by  him  in  a  fit 
of  drunkenness  ;  his  remorse  when  he  became  sober.  Con- 
spiracy of  the  royal  pages  against  Alexander  and  their  punish- 
ment. The  capture  of  the  Sogdian  rock  and  the  wife  of 
Oxyartes,  the  chief  of  the  district,  with  his  daughter  Roxana, 
afterwards  the  lawful  wife  of  Alexander.  How  Alexander  set 
out  from  Bactria  against  the  Indians,  defeated  them  in  several 
battles,  and  besieged  and  captured  several  of  their  cities. 
Storming  of  the  rock  of  Aornus  "^  and  invasion  of  the  country 
of  the  Ascanians.  Having  bridged  the  Indus,  Alexander 
crossed  over,  defeated  Porus,  king  of  India,  in  a  single 
engagement  and  took  him  prisoner.  He  was  generously 
treated  by  Alexander,  who  not  only  allowed  him  to  keep  his 
kingdom,  but  actually  enlarged  it.  How  the  rivers  of  India, 
like  the  Nile,  are  swollen  in  summer,  but  subside  in  winter. 
There  was  also  another  Porus,  an  Indian  ruler,  a  man  of  bad 
character,  in  pursuit  of  whom  Alexander  crossed  the  Hydaspes^ 

1  Cod.  LVIII.  2  y^^  B.C. 

3    333  B.C.  *   331  B.C. 

^  The  earliest  capital  of  Persia  (now  Meshed-i-Murghab),  where  Cyrus 
was  buried. 

^  j\Iod.  Bokhara. 

'  "  Birdless,"  so  high  that  birds  could  not  fly  to  the  summit.  The  name 
is  given  by  the  Greeks  to  many  high  Indian  rocky  mountains. 

8  Mod.  Behat  or  Jhelum. 


158  ARRIAN 

and  subdued  the  neighbouring  Indian  tribes,  took  by  siege 
their  large  and  populous  towns,  and  went  on  to  the  Hyphasis.^ 
While  he  was  preparing  to  cross  this  river,  the  soldiers  began 
to  show  signs  of  discontent,  complaining  of  their  toils  and 
endless  marches,  in  consequence  of  which  Alexander  left  India. 
Here  the  fifth  book  ends. 

In  the  sixth  book,  the  numerous  battles  and  brilliant  victories 
of  Alexander  on  his  way  home  are  related.  In  these  engage- 
ments he  received  two  wounds  besides  those  already  mentioned, 
and  although  the  seventh  wound  seemed  likely  to  prove  fatal, 
he  eventually  recovered.  He  returned  from  India  by  land, 
Nearchus,^  with  part  of  the  army,  being  sent  back  by  sea. 
Both  divisions  met  in  Carmania,^  whence  Alexander  marched 
into  Persia,  Nearchus  being  ordered  to  sail  to  Susiana*  and 
the  mouth  of  the  Tigris.  The  voyage  of  Nearchus  is  described 
by  Arrian  in  his  Indica^  written  in  the  Ionic  dialect. 

Alexander  repairs  the  neglected  tomb  of  Cyrus,  and  allows 
the  gymnosophist  ^  Calanus,  who  was  attacked  by  illness,  to  put 
himself  to  death  on  the  funeral  pile.  His  splendid  marriages 
and  those  of  his  generals.  His  wives  were  Roxana,  Arsinoe, 
the  eldest  daughter  of  Darius,  and  Parysatis,  the  youngest 
daughter  of  Ochus.  Drypetis,  another  daughter  of  Darius,  was 
given  to  Hephaestion ;  Amastrine  to  Craterus ;  Artacana  and 
Artone,  daughters  of  Artabazus,  to  Ptolemy  and  Eumenes ;  the 
daughter  of  Barsine  and  Mentor  to  Nearchus ;  the  daughter  of 
Spitamenes  to  Seleucus.  The  rest  of  his  friends  received  in 
marriage  the  daughters  of  the  most  distinguished  Medians  and 
Persians,  to  the  number  of  eighty.  The  discharged  Macedonian 
soldiers  were  sent  home,  Antipater  being  ordered  to  bring  back 
some  of  the  new  levies  in  their  place.  Harpalus  ®  takes  to 
flight  with  a  large  sum  of  money  from  the  treasury.     The  death 

1  Mod.  Sutlej. 

^  Alexander's  admiral  and  one  of  the  chief  navigators  of  ancient  times. 
^  The  Persian  coast-land  on  the  Persian  Gulf  and  Indian  Ocean  as  far  as 
Gedrosia,  now  Kerman. 

*  Large  Persian  province,  the  same  as  Elam,  the  only  tov^^n  of  importance 
being  Susa. 

*  See  p.  123,  note  ^.  This  was  their  regular  custom  when  ill  {KaTo.  ra  irdrpia). 
^  Alexander's  early  friend  and  untrustworthy  treasurer.     He  fled  from 

Babylon  with  5000  talents  before  Alexander's  return  to  India,  and  went  to 
Athens,  where  by  gifts  of  corn  and  money  he  succeeded  in  gaining  the 
favour  of  the  inhabitants  and  protection  against  Antipater,  who  demanded 
his  surrender.     He  took  refuge  finally  in  Crete,  where  he  was  killed. 


ARRIAN  159 

of  Hephaestion  and  the  great  grief  of  Alexander ;  his  splendid 
funeral  obsequies.  At  the  same  time  ambassadors  arrived 
from  Libya  and  Carthage,  and  even  from  Italy,  to  Alexander, 
who,  when  he  saw  the  Italians,  predicted  the  future  greatness 
of  their  country.  When  he  wished  to  advance  to  Babylon,  the 
seers  foretold  his  death,  and  when  an  unknown  person 
unexpectedly  sat  down  on  his  throne,  his  end  was  regarded 
as  still  more  certain.  Nevertheless,  he  equipped  a  fleet  to 
operate  against  the  numerous  Arabian  tribes  who  believed 
in  only  two  gods,  Uranus  and  Dionysus.  While  preparations 
were  being  made  he  was  seized  with  illness  and  died.  Many 
contradictory  stories  are  told  of  his  death.  He  lived  thirty-two 
years  and  eight  months,  and  reigned  twelve  years  and  eight 
months.  Arrian  extols  him  as  possessed  of  almost  every 
virtue.  The  seventh  book  ends  here,  being  continued  by  the 
Indica,  in  one  book. 

XCII 

The  same  author  also  wrote  an  account  of  what  took  place 
after  Alexander's  death,  in  ten  books. ^  He  describes  the 
sedition  in  the  army,  the  proclamation  of  Arrhidaeus  (the  son 
of  Alexander's  father,  Philip,  by  a  Thracian  woman  named 
Philinna)  on  condition  that  Roxana's  child,  when  born,  if  it 
were  "a  son,  should  share  the  throne  with  him.  Arrhidaeus  was 
then  again  proclaimed  under  the  name  of  Philip.  A  quarrel 
broke  out  between  the  infantry  and  the  cavalry.  The  chief 
and  most  influential  commanders  of  the  latter  were  Perdiccas 
the  son  of  Orontes,  Leonnatus  the  son  of  Anthes,  Ptolemy  the 
son  of  Lagus,  Lysimachus  the  son  of  Agathocles,  Aristonus  the 
son  of  Pisaeus,  Pithon  the  son  of  Crateuas,  Seleucus  the  son  of 
Antiochus,  and  Eumenes  of  Cardia.  Meleager  was  in  command 
of  the  infantry.  Communications  passed  between  them,  and 
at  length  it  was  agreed  between  the  infantry,  who  had  already 
chosen  a  king,  and  the  cavalry,  that  Antipater  should  be  general 
of  the  forces  in  Europe ;  that  Craterus  should  look  after  the 
kingdom  of  Arrhidaeus  ;  that  Perdiccas  should  be  chiliarch  ^  of 
the  troops  which  had  been  under  the  command  of  Hephaestion, 
which  amounted  to  entrusting  him  with  the  care  of  the  whole 

^  Consult  J,   P.   Mahaffy,  Alexander'' s  Empire  (1887)  in  "Story  of  the 
Nations"  Series,  and  E.  R.  Bevan,  The  House  of  Seleucus  (1902). 
^  See  p.  149,  note  *. 


i6o  ARRIAN 

empire  ;  and  that  Meleager  should  be  his  lieutenant.  Perdiccas, 
under  the  pretence  of  reviewing  the  army,  seized  the  ring- 
leaders of  the  disturbance,  and  put  them  to  death  in  the 
presence  of  Arrhidaeus,  as  if  he  had  ordered  it.  This  struck 
terror  into  the  rest,  and  Meleager  was  soon  afterwards 
murdered.  After  this  Perdiccas  became  the  object  of  general 
suspicion  and  himself  suspected  everybody.  Nevertheless,  he 
made  appointments  to  the  governorships  of  the  different 
provinces,  as  if  Arrhidaeus  had  ordered  him.  Ptolemy,  son 
of  Lagus,  was  appointed  governor  of  Egypt  and  Libya,  and  of 
that  part  of  Arabia  that  borders  upon  Egypt,  with  Cleomenes. 
formerly  governor  of  Egypt  under  Alexander,  as  his  deputy. 
The  part  of  Syria  adjacent  was  given  to  Laomedon ;  Cilicia  to 
Philotas  ;  Media  to  Pithon  ;  Cappadocia,  Paphlagonia,  and  the 
country  on  the  shore  of  the  Euxine  as  far  as  Trapezus  (a  Greek 
colony  from  Sinope),  to  Eumenes  of  Cardia;  Pamphylia, 
Lycia,  and  greater  Phrygia  to  Antigonus ;  Caria  to  Cassander ; 
Lydia  to  Menander ;  Phrygia  on  the  Hellespont  to  Leonnatus. 
This  Phrygia  had  formerly  been  given  by  Alexander  to  a 
certain  Galas  and  subsequently  handed  over  to  Demarchus. 
Such  was  the  distribution  of  Asia. 

In  Europe,  Thrace  and  the  Chersonese,  together  with  the 
countries  bordering  on  Thrace  as  far  as  Salmydessus  on  the 
Euxine,  were  given  to  Lysimachus ;  the  country  beyond 
Thrace,  as  far  as  the  lllyrians,  Triballians,  and  Agrianians, 
Macedonia  itself,  and  Epirus  as  far  as  the  Ceraunian  mountains, 
together  with  the  w^hole  of  Greece,  to  Craterus  and  Antipater. 
Such  was  the  division  of  Europe.  At  the  same  time  several 
provinces  remained  under  their  native  rulers,  according  to  the 
arrangement  made  by  Alexander,  and  were  not  affected  by  the 
distribution. 

Meanwhile,  Roxana  bore  a  son,  who  was  immediately 
acclaimed  king  by  the  soldiers.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
there  were  numerous  disturbances.  Antipater  carried  on  war 
against  the  Athenians  and  the  rest  of  the  Greeks  commanded 
by  Leosthenes.  He  was  at  first  defeated  and  in  great  straits, 
but  was  subsequently  victorious.  Leonnatus,  however,  who 
came  to  his  assistance,  fell  in  battle.  Lysimachus  also,  reck- 
lessly fighting  against  Seuthes  the  Thracian  with  an  inferior 
force,  was  defeated,  although  his  troops  greatly  distinguished 
themselves.     Perdiccas  also  made  war  upon  Ariarathes,  king 


ARRIAN  i6i 

of  Cappadocia,  because  he  refused  to  give  up  his  kingdom  to 
Eumenes.upon  whom  it  had  been  bestowed.  Having  defeated 
him  in  two  battles  and  taken  him  prisoner,  he  hanged  him  and 
reinstated  Eumenes.  Craterus,  by  the  assistance  he  rendered  to 
Antipater  against  the  Greeks,  chiefly  contributed  to  their  defeat, 
after  which  they  unhesitatingly  obeyed  Craterus  and  Antipater. 
This  is  the  contents  of  the  first  five  books. 

The  sixth  book  relates  how  Demosthenes  and  Hyperides, 
Aristonicus  of  Marathon  and  Himeraeus,  the  brother  of  Deme- 
trius of  Phalerum,  fled  to  Aegina,  and,  while  there,  were  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  Athenians  on  the  motion  of  Demades, 
and  how  Antipater  carried  out  the  sentence.  How  Archias 
the  Thurian,  who  put  them  to  death,  died  in  the  utmost 
poverty  and  disgrace.  How  Demades  was  soon  afterwards 
sent  to  Macedonia,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by  Cassander, 
after  his  son  had  been  murdered  in  his  arms.  Cassander 
alleged  in  excuse  that  Demades  had  once  insulted  his  father, 
Antipater,  in  a  letter  which  he  WTOte  to  Perdiccas,  begging 
him  to  rescue  the  Greeks,  who  were  only  held  together  by  an 
old  and  rotten  thread,  as  he  abusively  called  Antipater.  Dinar- 
chus  of  Corinth  was  the  accuser  of  Demades,  who  paid  the  just 
penalty  for  his  venality,  treachery,  and  unfaithfulness. 

The  author  also  relates  how  Harpalus,  who  during  the  life- 
time of  Alexander  had  stolen  money  belonging  to  him  and 
fled  to  Athens,  was  slain  by  Thibron  the  Lacedaemonian. 
Thibron  seized  all  the  money  that  remained,  and  set  out  for 
Cydonia  in  Crete,  whence  he  crossed  over  to  Cyrene  with  a 
body  of  6000  men,  at  the  request  of  some  exiles  from  Cyrene 
and  Barca.  After  many  engagements  and  mutual  intrigues,  in 
which  he  was  sometimes  successful  and  sometimes  unsuccessful, 
he  was  finally  captured  during  his  flight  by  some  Libyan  drivers, 
and  taken  to  Epicydes  the  Olynthian  at  Teuchira,  which  had 
been  entrusted  to  him  by  Ophelias  a  Macedonian,  whom 
Ptolemy  the  son  of  Lagus  had  sent  to  help  the  Cyrenians.  The 
inhabitants,  by  permission  of  Ophelias,  first  tortured  Thibron 
and  then  sent  him  to  the  port  of  Cyrene  to  be  hanged.  But 
since  the  Cyrenaeans  still  persisted  in  their  revolt,  Ptolemy  in 
person  visited  the  place,  and  after  having  restored  order,  sailed 
home  again. 

Perdiccas,  intriguing  against  Antigonus,  called  him  to  judg- 
ment, but  Antigonus,   aware  of  the   plot,   refused  to  appear. 

vol..  I.  L 


1 62  ARRIAN 

This  led  to  enmity  between  them.  At  the  same  time  lollas 
and  Archias  came  to  Perdiccas  from  Macedonia,  accompanied 
by  Nicaea,  the  daughter  of  Antipater,  with  a  proposal  of  mar- 
riage. Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great,  also  sent  to 
him,  offering  him  the  hand  of  her  daughter  Cleopatra.  Eumenes 
of  Cardia  favoured  Cleopatra,  but  his  brother  Alcetas  persuaded 
him  to  accept  Nicaea.  Soon  afterwards  Cynane  was  put  to 
death  by  Perdiccas  and  his  brother  Alcetas.  This  Cynane 
was  the  daughter  of  Philip,  the  father  of  Alexander,  her  mother 
being  Eurydice,  the  wife  of  Amyntas,  whom  Alexander  put  to 
death  just  before  he  set  out  for  Asia.  This  Amyntas  was  the 
son  of  Perdiccas  the  brother  of  Philip,  so  that  he  was  the 
cousin  of  Alexander.  Cynane  brought  her  daughter  Adea 
(afterwards  called  Eurydice)  to  Asia  and  offered  her  hand  to 
Arrhidaeus.  The  marriage  subsequently  took  place,  with  the 
approval  of  Perdiccas,  to  appease  the  increasing  indignation  of 
the  soldiery,  which  had  been  aroused  by  the  death  of  Cynane. 
Antigonus,  in  the  meantime,  took  refuge  with  Antipater  and 
Craterus  in  Macedonia,  informed  them  of  the  intrigues  of 
Perdiccas  against  him,  declaring  that  they  were  directed  against 
all  alike.  He  also  described  the  death  of  Cynane  in  such 
exaggerated  terms  that  he  persuaded  them  to  make  war  on 
Perdiccas.  Arrhidaeus,  who  kept  the  body  of  Alexander  with 
him,  contrary  to  the  wish  o  Perdiccas,  took  it  from  Babylon 
by  way  of  Damascus  to  Ptolemy  the  son  of  Lagus  in  Egypt ; 
and  though  often  hindered  on  his  journey  by  Polemon,  a 
fiiend  of  Perdiccas,  nevertheless  succeeded  in  carrying  out  his 
intention. 

Meanwhile,  Eumenes  conveyed  gifts  from  Perdiccas  to 
Cleopatra  at  Sardes,  since  Perdiccas  had  decided  to  repudiate 
Nicaea  and  to  marry  Cleopatra.  When  this  became  known  to 
Antigonus  through  Menander  the  governor  of  Lydia,  he  in- 
formed Antipater  and  Craterus,  who  were  more  than  ever 
determined  to  make  war  on  Perdiccas.  Antipater  and  Craterus, 
starting  from  the  Chersonese,  crossed  the  Hellespont,  having 
previously  sent  messengers  to  deceive  those  who  guarded  the 
passage.  They  also  sent  ambassadors  to  Eumenes  and  Neo- 
ptolemus,  who  supported  Perdiccas ;  Neoptolemus  went  over 
to  them,  but  Eumenes  refused. 

Neoptolemus  being  suspected  by  Eumenes,  war  broke  out 
between  them,  in  which  Eumenes  was  victorious.    Neoptolemus 


ARRIAN  163 

fled  with  a  few  men  to  Antipater  and  Craterus,  and  succeeded 
in  persuading  the  latter  to  join  him ;  so  both  made  war  against 
Eumenes.  Eumenes  did  his  best  to  prevent  his  own  men 
from  knowing  that  Craterus  was  fighting  against  him,  being 
afraid  that,  influenced  by  his  great  reputation,  they  might  either 
desert  to  him,  or,  if  they  remained  faithful  to  him,  might  lose 
heart.  Successful  in  scheming,  he  was  also  successful  in  battle. 
Neoptolemus  fell  by  the  hand  of  Eumenes  "  the  secretary  " 
himself,  after  having  proved  himself  a  brave  soldier  and  com- 
mander. Craterus,  who  fought  boldly  against  all  who  opposed 
him  and  showed  himself  openly  in  order  to  be  known,  was 
slain  by  some  Paphlagonians  before  he  was  recognized,  although 
he  had  thrown  off  his  hat.^  However,  the  infantry  escaped 
and  returned  to  Antipater,  which  considerably  reassured  him. 

Perdiccas,  setting  out  from  Damascus  to  make  war  upon 
Ptolemy  the  son  of  Lagus,  reached  Egypt  with  the  kings  ^  and 
a  large  force.  He  made  many  charges  against  Ptolemy,  who 
publicly  cleared  himself,  so  that  the  accusations  appeared  ill- 
founded.  Perdiccas,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  his 
troops,  decided  to  carry  on  the  war.  He  was  twice  defeated, 
and,  having  treated^  those  who  were  inclined  to  go  over  to 
Ptolemy  with  great  severity,  and  in  other  respects  behaved  in 
camp  more  arrogantly  than  became  a  general,  he  was  slain 
by  his  own  cavalry  during  an  engagement.  After  his  death 
Ptolemy  crossed  the  Nile  to  visit  the  kings,  upon  whom  he 
bestowed  gifts  and  treated  them  w^ith  the  utmost  kindness  and 
attention,  as  well  as  the  other  Macedonians  of  rank.  At  the 
same  time  he  openly  showed  sympathy  with  the  friends  of 
Perdiccas,  and  did  all  he  could  to  allay  the  apprehensions  of 
those  Macedonians  who  imagined  they  were  in  peril,  so  that  at 
once  and  ever  afterwards  he  was  held  in  great  esteem. 

At  a  full  council  of  war,  Pithon  and  Arrhidaeus  having  been 
appointed  commanders-in-chief  of  all  the  forces  for  the  time 
being,  about  fifty  of  the  supporters  of  Eumenes  and  Alcetos 
were  condemned,  chiefly  because  Craterus  had  met  his  death 
in  civil  strife.  Antigonus  was  summoned  from  Cyprus,  and 
Antipater  ordered  to  repair  with  all  speed  to  the  kings.  Before 
they  arrived,  Eurydice  refused  to  allow  Pithon  and  Arrhidaeus 

^  Kava-ia,  a  light,  broad -brimmed  felt  hat,  worn  by  the  Macedonians, 
to  keep  off  the  burning  heat  {Kavcns)  of  the  sun. 

2  Arrhidaeus  and  the  young  Alexander,  the  son  of  Roxana. 


1 64  ARRIAN 

to  do  anything  without  her  permission.  At  first  they  did  not 
demur,  but  afterwards  told  her  that  she  had  nothing  to  do  with 
pubHc  affairs,  and  that  they  themselves  would  look  after  every- 
thing until  the  arrival  of  Antigonus  and  Antipater.  When  they 
arrived,  Antigonus  was  placed  in  chief  command.  When  the 
army  demanded  the  pay  that  had  been  promised  them  for  the 
campaign,  Antipater  replied  straightforwardly  that  he  had  no 
money,  but  that,  to  avoid  incurring  their  censure^  he  would 
thoroughly  search  the  treasury  and  other  places  where  money 
might  be  hidden.  These  words  aroused  the  displeasure  of  the 
army.  When  Eurydice  joined  in  the  accusations  against 
Antipater,  the  people  were  indignant,  and  a  disturbance  took 
place.  Eurydice  then  delivered  a  speech  against  him,  in 
which  she  was  assisted  by  Asclepiodorus  the  scribe  and 
supported  by  Attains.  Antipater  barely  escaped  with  his  life, 
after  Antigonus  and  Seleucus,  at  his  earnest  request,  had 
addressed  the  people  on  his  behalf  and  nearly  lost  their  lives 
in  consequence.  Antipater,  having  thus  escaped  death,  with- 
drew to  his  own  army,  where  he  summoned  the  cavalry 
co;nmanders,  and  after  the  disturbance  had  been  put  down 
with  difficulty,  he  was  again  reinstated  in  his  command. 

He  then  made  a  division  of  Asia,  partly  confirming  the 
earlier  one  and  partly  altering  it  as  circumstances  necessitated. 
Egypt,  Libya,  the  large  tract  of  country  beyond  it,  and  all  the 
territory  that  had  been  conquered  towards  the  w^est,  w'as  given 
to  Ptolemy  ;  Syria  to  Laomedon  the  Mytilenean  ;  Cilicia  to 
Philoxenus,  who  had  held  it  before.  Of  the  upper  provinces, 
Mesopotamia  and  Arbelitis  were  given  to  Amphimachus,  the 
king's  brother  ;  Babylonia  to  Seleucus.  To  Antigenes,  com- 
mander of  the  Macedonian  argyraspidae,^  who  had  first  attacked 
Perdiccas,  was  given  the  whole  of  Susiana  ;  to  Peucestes  Persia ; 
to  Tlepolemus  Carmania :  to  Pithon  Media  as  far  as  the 
Caspian  gates  ;  to  Philip  Parthia  ;  to  Strasander  the  territory 
of  the  Arei  and  Drangeni  :  to  Stasanor  of  Soli,  Bactria,  and 
Sogdiana  ;  to  Siburtius  Arachosia ;  to  Oxyartes  the  father  of 
Roxana  Parapamisus  ;  to  Pithon  the  son  of  Agenor  the  part 
of  India  bordering  on  Parapamisus.  Of  the  adjacent  provinces, 
that  on  the  river  Indus,  together  with  Patala,  the  largest  city 
of  India  in  those  parts,  to  king  Porus,  and  that  on  the  river 
Ilydaspes  to  Taxilus  the  Indian,  for  it  would  have  been  no 

^  The  "silver-shield"  division  of  the  Macedonian  army. 


ARRIAN  165 

easy  matter  to  displace  them,  since  they  had  been  confirmed 
in  their  government  by  Alexander,  and  their  strength  had 
greatly  increased.  Of  the  countries  to  the  north  of  Mount 
Taurus,  Cappadocia  was  assigned  to  Nicanor ;  (Greater  Phrygia, 
Lycaonia,  Pamphylia,  and  Lycia,  to  Antigonus  as  before  : 
Caria  to  Asander  ;  Lydia  to  Clitus  ;  Phrygia  on  the  Helles- 
pont to  Arrhidaeus.  Antigenes  was  appointed  to  collect  the 
revenues  in  the  district  of  Susa^  3000  of  the  Macedonians  who 
were  mutinously  inclined  being  sent  with  him.  As  the  king's 
bodyguard  Antipater  appointed  Autolycus  the  son  of 
Agathocles,  Amrntas  the  son  of  Alexander  and  brother  of 
Peucestes,  Ptolemy  the  son  of  Ptolemy,  and  Alexander  the  son 
of  Polysperchon.^  He  made  his  own  son  Cassander  chiliarch 
of  the  cavalry,  while  Antigonus  received  command  of  the  forces 
which  had  formerly  been  under  Perdiccas,  together  with  the 
care  and  custody  of  the  kings'  persons  and,  at  his  own  request, 
the  task  of  finishing  the  war  against  Eumenes.  Antipater, 
having  secured  the  general  approval  of  all  that  he  had  done, 
returned  home.     With  this  the  ninth  book  concludes. 

The  tenth  book  relates  how  Eumenes,  having  heard  what 
had  befallen  Perdiccas,  and  that  he  himself  had  been  declared 
an  enemy  by  the  JNIacedonians,  made  all  preparations  for  war  ; 
how  Alcetas,  the  brother  of  Perdiccas,  took  refuge  with  him  on 
that  account ;  how  Attains,  who  had  been  one  of  the  ring- 
leaders in  the  insurrection  against  Antipater,  also  joined  the 
exiles  with  a  force  of  10,000  foot  and  Soo  horse;  how  Attalus 
and  his  troops  attacked  Cnidus,  Caunus,  and  Rhodes.  The 
Rhodians,  under  their  admiral,  Demaratus,  completely  repulsed 
them.  How  Eumenes  nearly  came  to  blow's  with  Antipater  on 
his  arrival  at  Sardes,  but  Cleopatra,  Alexander's  sister,  to 
prevent  the  Macedonian  people  accusing  her  of  being  the  cause 
of  the  war,  persuaded  Eumenes  to  leave  Sardes.  Notwith- 
standing, Antipater  reviled  her  for  her  friendship  with  Eumenes 
and  Perdiccas.  She  defended  herself  more  vigorously  than  a 
woman  could  have  been  expected  to  do,  brought  counter- 
charges against  him,  and  in  the  end  they  parted  amicably. 
Eumenes,  having  unexpectedly  attacked  those  who  did  not 
acknowledge  his  authority,  collected  much  booty  and  money, 
which  he  distributed  amongst  his  soldiers.  He  also  sent 
messages  to  Alcetas  and  his  friends,  begging  them  to  assemble 

^  More  correctly  Polyperchon. 


i66  ARRIAN 

all  their  forces  in  one  place  so  that  they  might  unitedly  attack 
the  common  enemy.  But  differences  of  opinion  arose  amongst 
them,  and  they  finally  refused.  Antipater,  not  yet  daring  to 
engage  Eumenes,  sent  Asander  against  Attalus  and  Alcetas ; 
after  the  battle  had  long  remained  undecided,  Asander  was 
defeated.  Cassander  was  at  variance  with  Antigonus,  but  by 
command  of  his  father,  Antii)ater,  he  abandoned  his  opposition. 
Nevertheless^  Cassander,  when  he  met  his  father  in  Phrygia, 
advised  him  not  to  get  too  far  from  the  kings,  and  to  keep 
watch  on  Antigonus  ;  but  the  latter,  by  his  quiet  behaviour, 
courtesy,  and  good  qualities,  did  all  he  could  to  remove 
suspicion.  Antipater,  being  appeased,  appointed  him  to  the 
command  of  the  forces  which  had  crossed  over  with  him  to 
Asia — 8500  Macedonian  infantry,  and  the  same  number  of 
foreign  cavalry,  together  with  half  the  elephants  (that  is,  seventy) 
— to  assist  him  in  ending  the  war  against  Eumenes.  Thus 
Antigonus  began  the  war.  Antipater,  with  the  kings  and  the 
rest  of  his  forces,  pretended  to  be  going  to  cross  over  into 
Macedonia,  but  the  army  again  mutinied  and  demanded  their 
pay.  Antipater  promised  that  he  would  pay  them  when  he 
reached  Abydos,  or  let  them  have,  if  not  tlie  whole,  at  least 
the  greater  part  of  it.  Having  thus  encouraged  their  hopes,  he 
reached  Abydos  without  disturbance,  but  having  deceived  the 
soldiers,  he  crossed  the  Hellespont  by  night,  with  the  kings,  to 
Lysimachus.  On  the  following  day  the  soldiers  also  crossed, 
and  for  the  moment  made  no  further  demand  for  their  pay. 
W^ith  this  the  tenth  book  ends. 

This  author  is  second  to  none  of  the  best  historical  writers. 
He  is  very  strong  in  concise  narrative,  and  never  impairs  the 
continuity  of  the  story  by  ill-timed  digressions  or  parentheses  ; 
he  is  novel  rather  in  arrangement  than  in  diction,  which  he 
employs  in  such  a  manner  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  the 
narrative  to  be  set  forth  more  clearly  and  j^erspicuously.  His 
style  is  distinct,  euphonious,  and  terse,^  characterized  by  a 
combination  of  smoothness  and  loftiness.  His  novelties  of 
language  are  not  merely  far-fetched  innovations,  but  are 
obvious  and  emphatic,  figures  of  speech  in  reality,  and  not 
simply  a  change  of  ordinary  words.  The  result  is  that  not 
only  in  this  respect  is  clearness  secured,  but  also  in  the  equip- 
ment, order,  and  nature  of  the  narrative,  which  is  the  artistic 

1  Or  "well-rounded." 


ARRIAN  167 

essence  of  perspicuity.  For  straightforward  periods  are  used 
even  by  those  who  are  not  specialists,  and  if  this  is  done 
without  anything  to  reh'eve  them,  the  style  degenerates  into 
flatness  and  meanness,  of  which,  in  spite  of  his  clearness,  there 
are  no  traces  in  our  author.  He  makes  use  of  ellipsis,  not  of 
periods  but  of  words,  so  that  the  ellipsis  is  not  even  noticed  ; 
any  attempt  to  supply  what  is  omitted  would  seem  to  indicate 
a  tendency  to  unessential  additions,  and  would  not  really  fill 
up  the  gap.  The  variety  of  his  rhetorical  figures  is  admirable; 
they  do  not  deviate  at  once  altogether  from  simple  form  and 
usage,  but  are  gradually  interwoven-  from  the  beginning,  so 
that  they  neither  offend  by  satiety  nor  create  confusion  by 
sudden  change.  In  a  word,  any  one  who  compares  him  with 
other  historians,  will  find  that  many  classical  writers  are  his 
inferior  in  composition. 

XCIII 

Read  the  same  author's  Biihynica  in  eight  books,  containing 
a  detailed  account  of  the  mythical  and  general  history  of 
Bithynia.  It  is  a  history  of  his  own  country,  dedicated  to  it 
as  a  patriotic  offering.  For  he  tells  us  definitely  in  this  w^ork 
that  he  was  born  in  Nicomedia,  brought  up  and  educated  there, 
and  held  the  office  of  priest  of  Demeter  and  her  daughter,  to 
whom  the  city  was  sacred.  He  mentions  various  works  of  his 
on  other  subjects,  such  as  the  career  of  the  Corinthian  Timoleon 
in  Sicily,  and  the  memorable  deeds  of  Dion  the  Syracusan, 
who  freed  Syracuse  and  the  whole  of  Sicily  from  the  second 
Dionysius,  the  son  of  the  first,  and  from  the  barbarians,  whom 
Dionysius  had  introduced  to  sui)port  his  tyranny.  It  appears 
that  the  history  of  his  country  was  the  fourth  work  he  wrote, 
being  written  after  the  histories  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Timo- 
leon, and  Dion.  Certainly  from  the  time  when  he  first  took 
to  a  literary  career  he  had  intended  to  treat  of  this  subject, 
but  the  work  took  some  time  to  complete  owing  to  the  lack  of 
material ;  at  least,  this  is  the  reason  he  himself  gives  for  the 
delay  in  its  production.  He  begins,  as  stated,  with  mythical 
history  and  goes  down  to  the  death  of  the  last  Nicomedes,^ 

^  The  first  independent  king  of  Bithynia  was  Nicomedes  I  (27S  B.C.) ; 
the  Nicomedes  here  referred  to  is  Nicomedes  IV,  who  becjueathed  his 
kingdom  to  Rome  in  74  B.c, 


1 68  lAMBLICHUS 

who  at   his  death  left  his  kingdom  to   the  Romans,  who  had 
never  had  a  king  since  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins. 

XCIV 

Read  the  Drainaticon  of  lamblichus,^  a  narrative  of  love 
adventures.  The  author  makes  less  show  of  indecencies  tlian 
Achilles  Tatius,  but  he  is  more  immoral  than  the  Phoenician 
Heliodorus.  Of  these  three  writers,  who  have  all  adopted  the 
same  subject  and  have  chosen  love  intrigues  as  the  material 
for  their  stories,  Heliodorus  is  more  serious  and  restrained, 
lamblichus  less  so,  while  Achilles  Tatius  pushes  his  obscenity 
to  impudence.  The  style  of  lamblichus  is  soft  and  flowing ; 
if  there  is  anything  vigorous  and  sonorous  in  it,  it  is  less  charac- 
terized by  intensity  than  by  what  may  be  called  titillation  and 
nervelessness.  lamblichus  is  so  distinguished  by  excellence  of 
style  and  arrangement  and  the  order  of  the  narrative  that  it  is 
to  be  regretted  that  he  did  not  devote  his  skill  and  energies  to 
serious  subjects  instead  of  to  puerile  fictions. 

The  characters  of  the  story  are  a  handsome  couple  named 
Rhodanes  and  Sinonis,  united  by  the  tie  of  mutual  love  and 
marriage.  Garmus,  king  of  Babylon,  having  lost  his  wife, 
falls  in  love  with  Sinonis  and  is  eager  to  marry  her.  Sinonis 
refuses  and  is  bound  with  chains  of  gold,  while  Rhodanes  is 
placed  upon  the  cross  by  Damas  and  Sacas,  the  king's  eunuchs. 
He  is  taken  down  through  the  efforts  of  Sinonis,  and  the  lovers 
take  to  flight,  one  thus  escaping  death,  the  other  a  hated  mar- 
riage. Sacas  and  Damas  have  their  ears  and  noses  cut  off  and 
are  sent  after  the  fugitives.  They  take  different  routes  to  carry 
out  the  search.  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis  are  nearly  surprised  by 
Damas  in  a  meadow.  For  a  fisherman  had  told  him  of  some 
shepherds  who,  being  put  to  the  torture,  at  last  show  him  the 
meadow  where  Rhodanes  had  discovered  a  treasure,  revealed 
to  him  by  the  inscription  engraved  on  a  cippus  -  surmounted 
by  a  lion. 

A  spectre  in  the  form  of  a  goat  becomes  enamoured  of 
Sinonis,  which  obliges  the  lovers  to  leave  the  meadow.  Damas 
finds  a  garland  of  flowers  dropped  by  Sinonis  and  sends  it  to 

^  Syrian  romnnce- writer,  probably  lived  about  the  middle  of  the  second 

century  A.D.     The  complete  work  is  no  longer  extant  {see  Cod.  LXXIII). 

2  A  monumental  pillar  or  monument  generally  marking  the  site  of  a  grave. 


lAMBLICHUS  169 

Garmus  as  a  consolation.  In  their  flight,  the  lovers  come 
across  an  old  woman  at  the  door  of  a  hut ;  they  hide  them- 
selves in  a  cave,  thirty  stades  long  and  open  at  both  ends,  the 
mouth  of  which  is  concealed  by  thick  bushes.  Damas  comes 
up  with  his  companions,  and  questions  the  old  woman,  who  is 
terrified  by  the  sight  of  the  naked  sword.  The  horses  on 
which  Rhodanes  and  -Sinonis  had  ridden  are  captured.  The 
soldiers  surround  their  hiding-place ;  the  brazen  shield  of  one 
of  those  who  were  keeping  watch  is  broken  on  the  cave  ;  the 
hollowness  of  the  echo  discloses  the  whereabouts  of  the  fugi- 
tives ;  the  soldiers  begin  to  dig,  and  Damas's  shouts  reach  the 
ears  of  those  within.  They  retire  farther  into  the  cave  and 
make  their  way  to  the  second  opening.  Here  a  swarm  of  wild 
bees  attacks  the  diggers,  drops  of  honey  falling  also  upon  the 
fugitives.  The  bees  as  well  as  the  honey  are  infected  with 
poison  from  their  having  eaten  certain  venomous  reptiles,  so 
that  the  diggers  whom  they  sting  either  lose  a  limb  or  die. 
Rhodanes  and  his  companion,  hard  pressed  by  hunger,  lick  up 
some  drops  of  the  honey,  are  seized  with  colic,  and  fall  on  the 
road  as  if  dead.  The  soldiers,  worn  out  by  the  attack  of  the 
bees,  take  to  flight  but  renew  the  pursuit  of  the  lovers.  wSee- 
ing  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis  prostrate  in  the  road,  they  pass 
them  by,  taking  them  for  two  dead  strangers.  Sinonis,  while 
in  the  cave,  had  cut  her  hair,  and  made  a  rope  with  it  to  draw 
water ;  Damas  finds  it  and  sends  it  to  Garmus,  as  an  earnest 
of  the  speedy  capture  of  the  fugitives.  The  soldiers  who 
passed  by  where  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis  were  lying  in  the  road 
pay  respect  to  them  as  if  they  were  really  dead,  according  to 
the  custom  of  the  country  ;  some  cover  them  with  their  tunics, 
others  throw  over  them  anything  they  have  at  hand,  even 
pieces  of  bread  and  meat,  and  then  go  their  way.  The  lovers 
recover  from  the  drowsiness  caused  by  the  honey  ;  Rhodanes 
had  been  roused  by  some  crows  quarrelling  over  some  pieces 
of  meat,  and  woke  Sinonis.  Getting  up,  they  go  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  soldiers,  so  as  to  be  less  easily  recognized. 
They  meet  two  asses  and  mount  them,  having  first  loaded 
them  with  part  of  what  the  soldiers,  thinking  them  dead,  had 
thrown  over  them,  and  which  the  lovers  had  carried  away. 
They  stop  at  an  inn,  but  soon  leave  it  for  another,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  a  full  market-place.  Two  brothers  have 
died  and  they  are    accused  of  their   murder,   but  acquitted. 


1 70  lAMBLICHUS 

The  elder  of  the  two  brothers,  who  had  poisoned  the  younger 
and  who  had  accused  them,  poisons  himself,  thereby  proving 
their   innocence.     Rhodanes   gets    possession    of   the    poison 
without  being  seen.     They  put  up  at  the  house  of  a  brigand 
who  robbed  passers-by  and  ate  them.    Soldiers  sent  by  Damas 
capture  the  brigand  and  set  fire  to  his  house ;  Rhodanes  and 
Sinonis,  enveloped  by  the  flames,  with  great  difficulty  escape 
with  their  lives,  after  they  have  killed  the  asses  and  thrown 
them  on  the  fire  to  make  a  bridge  across.     The  soldiers  who 
fired  the  house,  meeting  them  during  the  night,  ask  them  who 
they  are.     "We   are   the  ghosts   of  those    murdered  by  the 
brigands,"   they   reply.      Their  thin,   pale   countenances,    the 
weakness  of  their  voice,   persuade  the  soldiers  that  they  are 
speaking  the  truth,  whereat  they  are  greatly  alarmed.      The 
lovers  resume  their  flight,  and  meeting  a  young  girl  who   is 
being  carried    to    the   grave,  join    the    throng  of   spectators. 
An  old  Chaldaean  comes  up  and  stops  the  funeral,  saying  that 
the  girl  is  still  alive,  and  so  it  turns  out  to  be.     He  predicts  to 
Rhodanes  and  Sinonis  that  they  will  attain  royal  rank.     The 
girl's  grave  is  left  empty,  and  a  great  part  of  the  robes  which 
were  to  be  burnt  and  of  the  food  and  drink  is  left  behind. 
Rhodanes  and  Sinonis  make  a  good  meal,  take  some  of  the 
clothes  and  sleep  in  the  grave.     In  the  morning,  the  soldiers 
who  had  fired  the  house  find  they  have  been  deceived,  and  set 
out  in  pursuit  of  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis,  imagining  that  they 
are  accomplices  of  the  brigand.     Having  traced  them  as  far  as 
the  grave  and  seeing  them  lying  there  motionless,  overcome  by 
wine  and  sleep,  they  imagine  they  are  looking  on  corpses  and 
so  leave  them,  although  they  hesitated  since  their  footsteps 
guided  them  thither.^     Rhodanes  and  Sinonis  leave  the  grave 
and  cross  the  river,  the  waters  of  which  are  sweet  and  clear  and 
reserved  for    the  king  of  Babylon  alone  to  drink.     Sinonis, 
when  trying  to  sell  the  clothes  she  has  taken,  is  arrested  for 
sacrilege  and  brought  before  Soraechus,  the  son  of  Soraechus 
the  tax-gatherer  and  named  the  Just.    Owing  to  her  beauty,  he 
is  minded  to  send  her  to  king  Garmus ;  whereupon  Rhodanes 
and  Sinonis  mix  a  dose  of  poison,  considering  death  preferable 
to  the  sight  of  this   king.     Their  intention  is  revealed  by  a 
female  slave  to  Soraechus,  who  secretly  empties  the  cup  con- 
taining the  deadly  potion  and  fills  it  with  a  sleeping  draught ; 

^  Or,  "being  uncertain  whether  their  footsteps  led  thither," 


lAMBLICHUS  171 

after  they  have  drunk  it  and  are  in  a  deep  sleep  they  are  placed 
in  a  carriage  to  be  taken  to  the  king.  A  little  way  from  Babylon, 
Rhodanes  is  frightened  by  a  dream  and  cries  out ;  this  wakes 
Sinonis,  who  takes  up  a  sword  and  wounds  herself  in  the  breast. 
Soraechus  wants  to  know  their  history,  and  the  lovers  having 
received  a  solemn  promise  from  him,  tell  him  everything.  He 
sets  them  at  liberty  and  shows  them  a  temple  of  Aphrodite  on 
a  little  island,  where  Sinonis  can  be  healed  of  her  wound. 

By  way  of  digression  the  author  relates  the  history  of  the 
temple  and  the  little  island,  which  is  formed  by  the  surrounding 
waters  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  The  priestess  of  Aphrodite 
had  three  children,  Euphrates,  Tigris,  and  Mesopotamia,  the 
last,  who  was  born  ugly,  being  changed  into  a  woman  so  beau- 
tiful that  three  suitors  quarrelled  for  her  hand.  Bochorus,  the 
most  famous  judge  of  the  time,  was  chosen  to  decide  their 
claims,  and  the  three  rivals  pleaded  their  cause.  Now  Meso- 
potamia had  given  one  of  them  the  cup  from  which  she  drank, 
had  crowned  the  second  with  a  garland  of  flowers  from  her 
own  head,  and  had  kissed  the  third.  Bochorus  decided  that 
she  belonged  to  the  one  whom  she  had  kissed,  but  this  decision 
only  embittered  the  quarrel,  which  ended  in  the  death  of  the 
rivals  by  one  another's  hands.  In  another  digression  the 
author  gives  details  of  the  temple  of  Aphrodite.  The  women 
who  visit  it  are  obliged  to  reveal  in  public  the  dreams  they 
have  had  in  the  temple  ;  this  leads  to  minute  details  of  Phar- 
nuchus,  Pharsiris  and  Tanais,  from  whom  the  river  is  named. 
Pharsiris  and  Tanais  initiated  those  who  dwelt  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  into  the  mysteries  of  Aphrodite.  Tigris  died  in  the 
little  island  just  mentioned,  after  having  eaten  of  some  roses  in 
the  buds  of  which,  not  yet  full  blown,  lurked  a  poisonous  little 
beetle.  His  mother  believed  she  had  made  him  a  demi-god 
by  her  enchantments. 

lamblichus  then  describes  different  kinds  of  enchantments 
— by  locusts,  lions  and  mice.  According  to  him,  the  last  is 
the  oldest,  the  mysteries  being  called  after  the  name  of  these 
animals.^  There  are  also  enchantments  by  hail,  snakes,  necro- 
mancy and  ventriloquism,  the  ventriloquist  being  called  by  the 
Greeks  Eurycles,  and  by  the  Babylonians  Sacchuras.  The 
author  calls  himself  a  Babylonian  and  says  that,  after  having 
learnt  the  art  of  magic,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  the 

^  Deriving  fxv(rT7}piov  from  /xis. 


172  ,  lAMBLICHUS 

Greek  arts  and  sciences.  He  flourished  in  the  reign  of 
Soaemus,  son  of  Achaemenides  the  Arsacid,  who  occupied  the 
throne  of  his  fathers,  and  was  afterwards  a  Roman  senator  and 
consul,  and  king  of  Greater  Armenia.^  At  this  time  Marcus 
AureHus  was  Roman  emperor.  When  Aurelius  sent  Verus, 
his  adopted  brother  and  son-in-law  and  colleague  in  the 
empire,  to  make  war  against  Vologaesus  ^  the  Parthian  king, 
lamblichus  predicted  the  beginning,  the  course,  and  end  of  the 
war.  He  also  tells  how  Vologaesus  fled  over  the  Euphrates  and 
Tigris,  and  how  the  kingdom  of  Parthia  became  a  Roman 
province. 

Tigris  and  Euphrates,  the  children  of  the  priestess,  were 
very  like  each  other,  and  Rhodanes  was  like  both.  Tigris,  as 
has  been  mentioned,  had  been  poisoned  by  eating  roses,  and 
when  Rhodanes  crosses  over  to  the  island  with  Sinonis,  the 
mother  of  Tigris,  when  she  sets  eyes  on  Rhodanes,  declares 
that  her  son  has  come  back  to  life,  accompanied  by  Kore.^ 
Rhodanes  falls  in  with  the  deception,  highly  amused  at  the  credu- 
lity of  the  islanders.  Damas  is  informed  of  what  has  happened 
to  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis  and  of  what  Soraechus  has  done  for 
them,  his  informant  being  the  physician  whom  Soraechus  had 
secretly  sent  to  attend  to  Sinonis's  wound.  Soraechus  is 
arrested  and  taken  to  Garmus,  and  at  the  same  time  the 
informer  is  sent  with  a  letter  to  the  priest  of  Aphrodite, 
ordering  him  to  seize  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis.  The  physician, 
in  order  to  cross  the  river,  hangs  himself  round  the  neck  of  a 
camel  in  the  usual  manner,  having  first  deposited  the  letter  in 
the  animal's  right  ear.  He  is  drowned  in  the  river,  the  camel 
alone  reaches  the  island,  and  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis,  taking 
Damas's  letter  out  of  its  ear,  become  aware  of  the  danger  that 
threatens  them. 

They  accordingly  take  to  flight,  and  on  the  way  meet 
Soraechus,  who  is  being  taken  to  Garmus,  and  put  up  at  the 
same  inn.  During  the  night  Rhodanes  bribes  certain  persons 
to  slay  the  guards  of  Soraechus,  who  takes  to  flight  with  the 
lovers,  being  thus  rewarded  for  his  previous  kindness.  Damas 
arrests   the   priest   of  Aphrodite    and    'questions    him   about 

1  A.D.  164.  2  Or  Vologases  III  (148-190), 

^  Reading  Kdprju  with  capital  K.  Koie  or  Persephone,  daughter  of 
Demeter  (Ceres),  wife  of  Phito,  and  queen  of  the  lower  world.  If  K6pr]v  be 
read,  we  must  translate  "and  bids  her  daughter  follow  him." 


lAMBLICHUS  173 

Sinonis  ;  the  old  man  is  condemned  to  change  his  ministry  for 
the  office  of  executioner  ;  the  manners  and  customs  relating 
to  this  office.  Euphrates,  whom  the  priest  his  father  takes  for 
Rhodanes  and  calls  him  by  this  name,  is  arrested,  and  his 
sister  Mesopotamia  takes  to  flight.  Euphrates  is  taken  before 
Sacas  and  questioned  about  Sinonis,  being  taken  for  Rhodanes 
and  examined  as  such.  Sacas  sends  a  messenger  to  Garmus  to 
inform  him  that  Rhodanes  is  captured  and  that  Sinonis  soon  will 
be.  For  Euphrates,  when  questioned  in  the  name  of  Rhodanes, 
being  obliged  to  call  his  sister  Mesopotamia  by  the  name  of 
Sinonis,  declares  that  Sinonis  fled  when  she  saw  him  arrested. 

The  fugitives  Rhodanes,  Sinonis  and  Soraechus,  put  up  at 
the  house  of  a  farm-labourer.  He  has  a  beautiful  daughter, 
who  has  just  lost  her  husband,  and  out  of  her  affection  for  him 
has  cut  her  hair.  She  is  sent  to  a  goldsmith  to  sell  the  golden 
chain  which  Sinonis  had  brought  from  her  former  prison.  The 
goldsmith,  seeing  the  beauty  of  the  young  woman,  and  recog- 
nizing part  of  the  chain  which  he  happened  to  have  made 
himself,  and  noticing  that  she  has  her  hair  cut,  suspects  that 
she  is  Sinonis.  He  accordingly  informs  Damas  and  has  the 
labourer's  daughter  secretly  watched.  Suspecting  what  is 
afoot,  she  takes  refuge  in  an  empty  house.  The  story  of  the 
young  girl  named  Trophime,  of  the  slave  who  was  both  her 
lover  and  murderer,  of  the  golden  ornaments,  of  the  lawless 
conduct  of  the  slave,  of  his  suicide,  of  the  blood  that  spirted 
over  the  labourer's  daughter  when  the  murderer  was  committing 
suicide,  of  the  fear  and  flight  of  the  young  woman,  of  the  terror 
and  flight  of  those  who  were  keeping  watch  on  her,  of  the 
young  woman's  return  to  her  father,  of  the  story  of  her 
adventures,  of  the  departure  of  Rhodanes,  and  of  the  letter 
sent  by  the  goldsmith  to  inform  Damas  that  Sinonis  has  been 
found.  To  confirm  his  letter,  he  sends  the  chain  which  he  has 
bought,  and  mentions  the  other  suspicious  circumstances 
connected  with  the  labourer's  daughter. 

Rhodanes,  at  the  moment  of  leaving,  kisses  the  labourer's 
daughter.  Sinonis  is  furiously  jealous ;  at  first  she  had  only 
suspected  this  kiss,  but  her  suspicions  were  confirmed  when 
she  wiped  off  the  marks  of  blood  with  which  his  lips  were 
stained.  Sinonis  makes  up  her  mind  to  kill  the  young  woman 
and  hastens  back  like  a  madwoman,  followed  by  Soraechus, 
who  is  unable  to  calm  her  passionate  fury. 


174  lAMBLICHUS  i 

They  put  up  at  the  house  of  a  wealthy  man  of  dissolute 
habits,  named  Setapus,  who  falls  in  love  with  Sinonis  and  tries 

to  seduce  her.     She  pretends  to  return  his  love  and,  at  night,  1 

when  Setapus  is  intoxicated,  stabs  him  with  a  sword,  orders  I 

the   servants   to  open   the    door,    leaves    Soraechus,    who    is  ] 

ignorant  of  what  has  happened,  and  sets  out  in  haste  to  find  \ 

the  labourer's  daughter.     Soraechus,   when  he   hears  of  her  j 

departure,  starts  in  pursuit,  having  hired  some  of  the  slaves  of  i 

Setapus  to  accompany  him,  so  as  to  prevent  the  murder  of  the  i 

labourer's  daughter.     He  overtakes  her,  makes  her  get  into  a  | 

carriage  which  had  been  prepared  beforehand,  and  turns  back  [ 

with  her.     On  their  return,  the  servants  of  Setapus,  who  had  ■ 
found  their  dead  master,  filled  with  rage  rush  upon  them,  seize 

Sinonis,  bind  her,  and  take  her  to  Garmus  to  be  punished  as  a  j 
murderess.     Soraechus,  having  sprinkled  his  head  with  dust, 

and  rent  his  cloak,  announces  the  sad  news  to  Rhodanes,  who  , 
would  have  killed  himself,  but  is  prevented  by  Soraechus. 

Garmus,  having  received  the  letters  from    Sacas  and   the  ' 

goldsmith,  informing  him  of  the   capture   of  Rhodanes  and  ■ 

Sinonis,   rejoices  greatly,   offers  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  orders  j 

preparations  to  be  made  for  the  marriage,  and  issues  a  decree  | 

that  all  prisoners  should  be  unbound  and  set  free.     Sinonis  is  ' 

accordingly  released  from  her  bonds  by  the  servants  of  Setapus.  ! 
Garmus  orders  Damas  to  be  put  to  death  and  he  is  handed 

over  to  the  priest  whom  he  himself  had  deprived  of  his  priest-  ] 

hood  and  made  executioner.     Garmus  was  wroth  with  Damas,  ' 
because  he  had  allowed  others  to  have  the  honour  of  arresting 

the  supposed  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis.     Damas  is  succeeded  in  ] 
his  office  by  his  brother  Monasus. 

The  story  of  Berenice,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  of  her 

disgraceful  amours,  of  her  intimacy  with  Mesopotamia,   who  | 

was  afterwards  seized  by  Sacas  and,  as  Sinonis,  sent  to  Garmus  i 

with  her  brother  Euphrates.     Garmus,  hearing  from  the  gold-  ' 
smith  that  Sinonis  has  escaped,  orders  him  to  be  put  to  death, 
and  the  guards,  who  had  been  deputed  to  watch  the  pretended 
Sinonis  and  to  bring  her  to  him,  to  be  buried  alive  with  their 

women  and  children.  '. 

An  Hyrcanian  dog,  belonging  to  Rhodanes,  finds  in  the  - 

ill-omened  inn    the  bodies  of  the  unhappy  girl  and   of  the  \ 

slave,    her   infatuated   lover   and    murderer.     It   has   already  i 

devoured  the   body  of  the  slave  and  half  eaten  that  of  the  I 


lAMBLICHUS 


175 


young  girl,  when  the  father  of  Sinonis  comes  on  the  scene. 
Recognizing  the  dog  as  belonging  to  Rhodanes  and  seeing 
the  half-eaten  body  of  the  girl,  he  first  kills  the  dog  as  a  sacri- 
fice to  Sinonis  and  then  hangs  himself,  having  first  buried  the 
remains  of  the  girl  and  written  on  her  tomb  with  the  blood  of  the 
dog,  "Here  lies  the  beautiful  Sinonis."  Meanwhile  Rhodanes 
and  Soraechus  come  up,  see  the  dog  lying  dead  by  the  tomb, 
Sinonis's  fathei  hanging  by  a  rope,  and  the  epitaph  written  on 
the  tomb.  Rhodanes  stabs  himself  and  adds  to  the  epitaph  on 
Sinonis  the  words  :  "  and  the  handsome  Rhodanes,"  written 
in  his  own  blood.  Soraechus  puts  his  head  in  the  noose,  and 
Rhodanes  is  preparing  to  give  himself  the  death  blow,  when 
the  labourer's  daughter  rushes  in,  shouting  loudly,  "Rhodanes, 
she  who  lies  here  is  not  Sinonis."  She  runs  and  cuts  the 
rope  by  which  Soraechus  is  hanging,  and  snatches  the  dagger 
from  the  hand  of  Rhodanes.  At  last  she  manages  to  con- 
vince them  by  relating  the  story  of  the  unhappy  girl,  and 
of  the  buried  treasure,  which  she  had  come  to  carry  off. 

Meanwhile  Sinonis,  released  from  her  bonds,  hastens  to 
the  labourer's  house,  still  furious  with  his  daughter.  Unable 
to  find  her,  she  asks  her  father  where  she  is,  and  on  his 
telling  her  the  way  she  has  taken,  she  immediately  sets  out 
in  pursuit  with  drawn  sword.  At  the  sight  of  Rhodanes 
lying  on  the  ground  and  her  rival  sitting  alone  by  his  side, 
endeavouring  to  staunch  the  wound  in  his  breast  (Soraechus 
having  gone  to  fetch  a  physician)  her  rage  and  jealousy  know 
no  bounds  and  she  rushes  upon  the  young  woman.  But 
Rhodanes,  forgetting  his  wound  at  the  sight  of  her  violence, 
musters  up  strength  to  throw  himself  in  front  of  Sinonis  and 
hold  her  back,  at  the  same  time  snatching  the  sword  from 
her  hands.  Sinonis,  transported  with  rage,  rushes  out  of  the 
inn  and  running  like  a  madwoman  shouts  to  Rhodanes :  "  I 
invite  you  today  to  Garmus's  wedding."  Soraechus,  on  his 
return,  hearing  what  has  taken  place,  consoles  Rhodanes,  and 
after  his  wound  has  been  dressed,  the  labourer's  daughter  is 
sent  back  with  money  to  her  father. 

Euphrates  and  Mesopotamia,  the  supposed  Rhodanes  and 
Sinonis,  together  with  Soraechus  and  the  real  Rhodanes  are 
taken  before  Garmus.  Garmus,  seeing  that  Mesopotamia  is 
not  Sinonis,  delivers  her  to  Zobaras  with  orders  to  cut  off  her 
head  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates,  to  prevent  any  one  else 


176  lAMBLICHUS 

in  future  taking  the  name  of  Sinonis.  But  Zobaras,  who 
has  already  drunk  at  the  fountain  of  love,  is  smitten  with 
Mesopotamia ;  he  spares  her  Hfe  and  sends  her  back  to 
J3erenice,  who  had  become  queen  of  Egypt  after  her  father's 
death,  and  from  whom  she  had  been  taken.^  Berenice 
is  again  united  to  Mesopotamia,  on  whose  account  Garmus 
threatens  war. 

Euphrates  is  handed  over  to  his  father,  now  executioner,  by 
whom  he  is  recognized,  and  his  Hfe  is  spared.  He  takes  the 
place  of  his  father,  whose  hands  are  not  soiled  with  human 
blood,  and  afterwards,  disguised  as  the  daughter  of  the 
executioner,  escapes  from  the  prison  and  regains  his  freedom. 

Such  was  the  state  of  affairs  when  Soraechus  is  condemned 
to  be  crucified.  The  place  of  execution  appointed  was  the 
meadow  with  the  fountain  where  Rhodanes  and  Sinonis  had 
first  rested  during  their  flight,  where  Rhodanes  had  discovered 
the  hidden  treasure  of  which  he  informs  Soraechus  when  the 
latter  is  being  led  away  to  execution.  A  body  of  Alans, 
indignant  at  not  receiving  their  pay  from  Garmus,  who  had 
halted  at  the  place  where  Soraechus  was  to  be  executed,  drive 
away  the  guards  of  Soraechus  and  set  him  free.  Soraechus, 
having  found  the  treasure  of  which  he  had  been  told,  and 
having  cleverly  removed  it  from  its  hiding-place,  persuades 
the  Alans  that  he  has  learnt  this  and  other  things  from  the 
gods.  Having  gradually  gained  their  confidence,  he  induces 
them  to  elect  him  their  king,  makes  war  upon  Garmus  and 
defeats  him.     But  this  happened  later. 

While  Soraechus  is  on  his  way  to  execution,  Garmus, 
crowned  with  garlands  and  dancing,  orders  Rhodanes  to 
be  taken  to  the  place  where  he  was  to  have  been  executed 
before,  and  to  be  placed  upon  the  cross.  While  Garmus, 
drunk  with  wine  and  dancing  round  the  cross  with  the  flute- 
players,  abandons  himself  to  joy  and  revelry,  he  receives  a 
letter  from  Sacas,  informing  him  that  Sinonis  has  just  married 
the  young  king  of  Syria.  Rhodanes  is  rejoiced,  Garmus  at 
first  wants  to  kill  himself,  but,  changing  his  mind,  makes  the 
unwilling  Rhodanes,  who  would  have  preferred  death,  come 
down  from  the  cross.  Garmus  then  appoints  him  to  the 
command  of  an  army  which  he  decides  to  send  against  the 
king    of    Syria,    so   as   to    pit    the    lover   against    the   rival, 

1  By  Sacas  (p.  174). 


JOHN   SCYTHOPOLITA  177 

Rhodanes  is  treacherously  received  by  the  army  in  a  friendly 
manner,  Garmus  having  privately  instructed  the  generals 
under  Rhodanes  that,  if  their  army  is  victorious  and  Sinonis 
is  captured,  they  are  to  put  Rhodanes  to  death.  Rhodanes 
gains  the  victory,  recovers  Sinonis,  and  becomes  king  of 
Babylon,  as  a  swallow  had  foretold.  For  when  Garmus  in 
person  came  to  see  Rhodanes  set  out  on  the  expedition,  an 
eagle  and  a  kite  pursued  this  swallow,  which  escaped  the 
eagle  but  became  the  prey  of  the  kite.  Such  is  the  contents 
of  the  sixteen  books. 

XCV 

Read  the  work  of  John  Scythopolita  the  Scholasticus 
Against  Separaiisis  from  tlie  Church,  or  Against  Eutyches  ^  and 
Dioscorus  '^  and  those  who  held  the  same  ideas,  and  denied  that 
there  were  two  natures  in  Christ.  The  work,  in  twelve  books, 
was  written  at  the  request  of  a  certain  patriarch  named 
Julian.^  The  writer's  style  is  clear  and  pure  and  he  uses 
words  suited  to  the  historic  style.  He  vigorously  combats 
heresy  and  makes  full  use  of  evidence  from  Scripture,  not 
neglecting  logical  methods,  when  they  are  appropriate  to  the 
subject.  The  author  of  this  separatist  treatise  attacked  by 
Scythopolita  has  concealed  his  name,  but  has  craftily  entitled 
it  Against  Nestorius,  in  order  to  induce  the  more  simple- 
minded  to  read  it.  Perhaps  it  is  Basil  of  Cilicia,^  who 
afterwards  wrote  against  John  a  dramatic  dialogue  worthy  of 
the  religion  he  professed. 

XCVI 

Read  the  work  by  George,  bishop  of  Alexandria,"^  entitled 
The  Life  of  St.  Chrysostcm.  Who  the  author  is,  I  cannot  state 
with  certainty.  The  style  is  simple,  at  times  degenerating  into 
meanness  and  vulgarity,  and  the  proper  construction  of  nouns 
and   verbs,   usually  observed    even    by   the    grammarians,^  is 

1  See  Cod.  XVII. 

^  Supposed  to  be  Julian,  patriarch  of  Antioch  (471-476). 

3  See  Cod.  XLII. 

^  616-630.  The  work,  which  is  extant  in  a  complete  form,  is  rep:arfied 
as  worthless  {see  biography  of  Chrysostom  by  W.  R.  W.  Stephens,  1872). 

*  Tpa/j-fxaTLKol  must  here  mean  those  whose  education  is  elementary.     It 
more  generally  =  philologist  in  the  sense  of  a  student  of  literature. 
VOL.  I.  M 


178  GEORGE   OF  ALEXANDRIA 

neglected.  The  author  says  that  he  has  compiled  his  history 
from  material  taken  from  bishop  Palladius/  who  has  written 
an  admirable  and  careful  life  of  Chrysostom  in  the  form  of 
a  dialogue,  from  Socrates,^  and  other  writers. 

According  to  the  author,  the  great  John  was  born  at 
Antioch  of  noble  parents,  Secundus  and  Anthusa.  Meletius 
the  Armenian,  then  head  of  the  Church  at  Antioch,^  initiated 
them  into  the  rites  of  Christianity  and  prepared  them  to 
receive  the  saving  grace  of  baptism,  having  first  initiated  and 
baptized  their  son.  At  an  early  age,  John  went  to  school. 
From  boyhood  he  was  distinguished  for  his  modesty,  showed 
none  of  the  effeminacy  common  to  weaUhy  and  high-born 
children,*  and  would  not  even  ride  on  horseback.  At  Antioch 
he  attended  the  lectures  of  Libanius  on  grammar  and  rhetoric, 
and  of  Andragathius  on  philosophy.  After  his  father's  death, 
he  was  the  comfort  of  his  mother,  and,  abstaining  from  all 
pleasures  and  amusements,  devoted  himself  entirely  to  study. 

He  visited  Athens  to  improve  his  knowledge,  and  in  a  short 
time  showed  himself  so  superior  to  all  other  students  that 
Anthemius,  the  priest  of  the  temple  of  Athena,  who  was 
reputed  the  wisest  man  in  Athens,  was  jealous  of  him. 
Demosthenes,  the  prefect  of  the  city,  sent  a  most  compli- 
mentary summons  to  him,  in  answer  to  which  John  presented 
himself  with  great  humility.  In  a  discussion  that  took  place 
between  them,  John  showed  himself  superior  in  learning, 
intelligence,  and  piety.  A  marvellous  result  of  this  was,  that 
Anthemius,  finally  convinced  by  John's  divine  eloquence  and 
prayers,  was  baptized  with  all  his  household  by  the  bishop  of 
the  city.  The  prefect,  who  had  been  already  baptized,  received 
instruction  in  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  together  with  a  large 
number  of  heathen.  The  bishop  of  the  city  wanted  to  ordain 
John  and  to  leave  him  bishop  of  the  city  in  his  place,  but  John, 
when  he  became  aware  of  this,  secretly  set  sail  in  haste  for 
his  own  country. 

His  friends  and  acquaintances  wished  him  to  enter  the  legal 
profession,  but  he  was  himself  inclined  to  amonastic  life,  although 
only  eighteen  years  of  age.  Two  of  his  fellow-students, 
Theodore,  afterwards   bishop    of  Mopsuestia,  and   Maximus, 

^  c.  364-431,  Bishop  of  Helenopolis  in  Bithynia,  author  of  the  Lausiaca, 
biographies  of  ascetics.  ^  See  Cod.  XXVIII. 

^  About  360.  *  Add  :  "would  not  allow  such  to  accompany  him." 


GEORGE   OF  ALEXANDRIA  179 

afterwards  bishop  of  Seleucia,  rejected  a  public  and  mercenary 
career  and  chose  a  private  and  simple  life.  He  was  very 
intimate  with  Basil  the  Great  (not  the  other  Basil,  as  some 
assert),  who  was  ordained  deacon  by  Meletius  and  whom  John 
esteemed  more  highly  than  any  other  of  his  friends.  Basil 
took  farewell  of  John  and  tried  to  persuade  him  to  adopt  the 
same  kind  of  life,  but  for  the  time  his  mother  stood  in  the  way. 
Bishop  Zeno  came  from  Jerusalem  ^  and  appointed  John 
reader  in  the  church  at  Antioch.  Soon  afterwards  his  mother 
died,  John  distributed  his  father's  property  amongst  the  poor, 
left  the  city,  entered  a  monastery  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
showed  himself  a  model  and  pattern  monk. 

Hesychius,  a  Syrian  monk,  who  was  reputed  to  have  a 
knowledge  of  the  future,  saw  two  men  in  white  raiment,  the 
one  holding  a  book  and  the  other  some  keys,  both  of  which 
they  gave  to  John.  The  latter  declared  that  he  was  the 
apostle  Peter,  the  former  that  he  was  John  the  theologian. 
Hesychius  told  this  to  the  inmates  of  the  monastery,  having 
taken  care  that  it  should  not  reach  the  ears  of  John,  for  fear 
lest,  owing  to  his  great  modesty,  he  might  leave  the  monastery. 
John  also  went  through  severe  religious  exercises  and  composed 
several  monastic  treatises. 

He  also  wrought  miracles  while  in  the  monastery.  One  of 
the  citizens  had  such  a  pain  on  one  side  of  his  head  that  his 
right  eye  hung  out,  but  when  he  consulted  John  he  was 
immediately  cured.  A  certain  Archelaus,  a  wealthy  and 
distinguished  person,  suffering  from  leprosy  in  the  face,  was 
ordered  to  wash  in  the  pool  out  of  which  the  brethren  drank, 
and  became  well ;  after  this,  he  distributed  his  wealth,  said 
farewell  to  the  world,  and  entered  the  monastery,  his  example 
being  followed  by  many  others.  Another  person  named 
Eucleus,  who  had  lost  his  right  eye  through  the  influence  of 
an  evil  spirit,  applied  to  the  monastery  for  admission  ;  his 
head  was  shaved  while  the  man  of  God  prayed,  and  he 
recovered  his  sight.  A  woman  also  who  had  an  issue  of 
blood  seven  years  was  healed.  A  lion,  which  was  said  to  have 
carried  off  a  number  of  travellers,  after  John  had  impressed 
the  sign  of  the  cross  upon  others,  was  killed  by  its  influence. 

After  four  years,  owing  to  the  number  of  people  who  applied 

^  He  was  bishop  of  Majuma,  the  port  of  Gaza,  famous  for  his  ascetic  life 
and  devotion  to  the  duties  of  his  calling. 


i8o  GEORGE   OF  ALEXANDRIA 

to  him,  he  left  the  monastery,  and  spent  two  years  in  a  cave 
seldom  sleeping  and  not  lying  down  during  the  whole  of  the 
time.  Having  contracted  a  chill  in  the  stomach  and  kidneys, 
he  was  compelled  to  return  to  Antioch,  where  he  was  ordained 
deacon  by  Meletius  and  looked  after  the  altar.  At  that  time 
he  wrote  the  three  treatises  to  Stagirius  ^  and  those  On  the 
Priesthood  and  On  the  Incomprehensible.  After  the  death  of 
Meletius  at  Constantinople,  the  holy  John  returned  to  the 
monastery.  Flavian,  who  had  succeeded  Meletius,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  divine  revelation  brought  him  back  to  the  city 
from  the  monastery  and  ordained  him  priest.  A  command 
had  been  given  to  Flavian  in  a  vision  that  John  should  be 
ordained  and  that  Flavian  himself  should  ordain  him.  A  dove 
that  hovered  over  his  head  during  the  ceremony  was  abundant 
proof  of  the  divine  grace  with  which  he  was  to  be  filled.  He 
spent  twelve  years  in  the  sanctuary.  From  his  early  years, 
owing  to  his  zeal  for  virtue  he  was  harsh  and  severe,  and 
rather  given  to  wrath  than  to  consideration  for  others.  He 
wrote  several  commentaries  while  at  Antioch,  and  at  the 
bishop's  urgent  request  addressed  the  people  extemporaneously 
in  the  pulpit. 

The  son  of  a  woman  named  Euclaea,  suffering  from  a  violent 
fever,  whose  life  had  been  despaired  of,  was  healed  by  being 
sprinkled  with  some  water  which  John  had  blessed.  A  certain 
woman  belonging  to  the  sect  of  the  Marcionists,^  whose  husband 
held  some  office  in  the  city,  was  in  a  desperate  condition  from 
dysentery ;  but  having  been  healed  by  John,  she,  her  husband, 
and  all  her  household,  with  several  other  Marcionists,  returned  to 
the  true  faith. 

On  the  death  of  Nectarius,  archbishop  of  Constantinople,^ 

^  A  young  friend  of  Chrysostom  who,  after  having  led  a  dissipated  life, 
entered  a  monastery.  He  was  at  first  unable  to  endure  the  restrictions, 
became  subject  to  convulsions  (regarded  as  demoniacal  attacks),  but  gradu- 
ally attained  to  a  more  religious  and  meeker  frame  of  mind.  The  treatises 
contain  Chrysostom's  advice  to  his  friend. 

^  So  called  from  Marcion  of  Sinope,  an  heresiarch  of  the  second 
century  a.d.  His  followers  believed  in  two  Christs,  one  sent  by  sn 
unknown  God  to  save  the  whole  world,  the  other  whom  the  Creator  would 
one  day  send  to  save  the  Jews.  They  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  flesh, 
and  maintained  that  the  body  of  Christ  was  like  ours  only  in  appearance, 
not  in  reality. 

^  He  succeeded  Gregory  of  Nazianzus,  and  was  archbishop  from  381  to 
397  (398). 


GEORGE  OF  ALEXANDRIA  i8i 

John  was  sent  for  from  Antioch,  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of 
the  inhabitants,  who  claimed  him  as  their  own  special  blessing. 
But  the  emperor's  command  prevailed  ;  John  was  consecrated 
by  Theophilus,  patriarch  of  Alexandria/  who  was  reluctant  to 
perform  the  ceremony,  but  was  forced  to  do  so,  certain  papers 
containing  charges  against  him  being  held  over  him  as  a  threat 
if  he  did  not  consent.  While  John  was  being  consecrated 
amid  general  approval,  a  man  possessed  was  freed  by  him  from 
an  evil  spirit. 

The   great    Chrysostom    then    immediately   abolished   the 
custom  of  receiving  spiritual  sisters  and  delivered  long  discourses 
against  the  unjust,   the  gluttonous,   and   the    pleasure-loving. 
He  was  very  charitable,  so  that  many  called  him  the  Almsgiver. 
In  a  word,  he  taught  all  virtue  and  dissuaded  from  all  vice. 
He  also  sent  monks  to  Phoenicia  to  redeem  from  error  those 
who  were  given  over  to  idolatry  ;  these  monks,  armed  with  the 
imperial    authority,    overthrew    the    idolatrous    temples,    the 
expenses  being   defrayed  by  certain   pious  women.     A   band 
of   Celts,    infected    by    Arianism,    was   brought   back   to   the 
true  faith  by  missionaries  who  spoke  their  language.     He  also 
brought  back  the  nomad  Scythians  voluntarily  to  Christianity. 
He  utterly  rooted  out  the  Marcionite  heresy  which  was  raising  its 
head  again  in  the  East.     He  increased  the  number  of  nightly 
services   with  chanting.     He  took   his   food   alone  for  three 
reasons ;  he  was  a  total  abstainer  from  wine  because  it  affected 
his   head  (except  when  he  drank  it  flavoured   with  roses  in 
summer),  he  suffered  from  a  weak  stomach  so  that  he  often 
could  not  eat  the  food  put  before  him,  but  asked  for  something 
else,  and  when  at  leisure  he  often  refrained  from  food  all  day. 
The  clergy  considered  him  very  harsh  and  austere.     His  deacon 
Serapion  was  also  the  cause  of  great  hatred  against  him.     John 
expelled  several  clergy  from  the  Church  for  various  reasons. 
Serapion  also  quarrelled  with  Severian,  bishop  of  Gabala,  who 
conceived  a   great   and   lasting   hatred .  of  John.     John    was 
greatly  loved    by  the  people   owing   to   his   discourses.     He 
himself  was  very  fond  of  commenting   upon  the  epistles  of 
St.  Paul,  who,  according  to  John's  friend  Proclus,  visited  him 
for   three  nights  and  inspired  him  with  the  interpretation  of 
his  epistles. 

John  also  offended  the  empress  in  the  case  of  Theodoric  the 

1  3S5-412. 


i82  GEORGE   OF  ALEXANDRIA 

patrician,  whom  he  had  succeeded  in  freeing  from  her  unjust 
exactions.  Theodoric  gave  the  greater  part  of  his  property  to 
the  Church  poorhouse  as  a  thankoffering  to  God,  which  inflamed 
Eudoxia  with  anger  and  malice.  Eutropius  introduced  a  law 
that  criminals  who  fled  for  refuge  to  the  churches  should  not 
enjoy  the  privilege  of  asylum.  But  when,  soon  afterwards,  he 
himself  took  refuge  there,  he  reaped  the  fruits  of  his  own  legis- 
lation. While  he  lay  prostrate  at  the  altar,  the  great  John 
delivered  a  speech  full  of  reproach,  which  set  many  against 
him,  who  thought  that  he  rebuked  the  unhappy  wretch  too 
cruelly.  He  deprived  the  Arians  of  their  churches  and  with 
the  emperor's  consent  drove  them  out  of  the  city.  Since  they 
had  composed  antiphons  to  deceive  the  simple-minded  he 
outdid  them,  with  the  assistance  of  the  empress,  by  dis- 
playing silver  crosses  while  the  antiphons  were  being  sung.  It 
is  said  that  the  God-inspired  Ignatius  first  introduced  antiphons, 
in  imitation  of  the  angels  who  in  this  manner  sang  the  praises 
of  God.  The  influential  Arian  Gainas  ^  demanded  a  church 
from  the  emperor,  but  John  who  was  present  expressed  his 
disapproval  with  great  freedom,  and  persuaded  the  emperor  to 
refuse.  Soon  afterwards,  when  Gainas  rebelled,  John,  without 
delay,  at  the  general  request,  went  on  an  embassy  to  the 
barbarian,  and  repressed  the  revolt. 

Eusebius,  who  succeeded  Celbianus  as  bishop  of  Valenti- 
nopolis,^  presented  a  document  containing  seven  charges 
against  Antoninus,  bishop  of  Ephesus.  The  three  first  accused 
him  of  sacrilege  ;  the  fourth  was  that  he  had  retained  in  his 
service  without  rebuking  him  a  youth  who  had  committed 
murder ;  the  fifth,  that  he  had  taken  possession  of  and  sold 
some  land  which  had  been  left  by  Basihna,  the  mother  of 
Julian,^  to  the  Church  ;  the  sixth,  that  he  had  resumed  inter- 
course with  his  wife  after  he  had  said  farewell  to  the  world,  and 
that  he  had  had  a  child  by  her ;  the  seventh,  that  he  accepted 
fees  for  consecration.  The  last  charge,  being  regarded  as  the 
most  serious,  was  investigated.  The  trial  was  protracted  to 
great  length,  since  the  accuser  himself  purposely  neglected  his 
duty,  and  Antoninus  died   before    it   ended.     John   therefore 

^  Roman  general,  a  Goth  by  birth,  commander  of  the  troops  of  Arcaciius. 
He  afterwards  revolted,  was  declared  an  enemy  of  the  state,  and  retaliated 
by  ravaging  the  territory  of  the  empire.  He  was  killed  fighting  against  the 
II  ins  (401),  who  sent  his  head  to  Constantinople. 

^  Mod.  Valenza  in  Liguria.  ^  The  Apostate. 


GEORGE   OF  ALEXANDRIA  183 

went  to  Ephesus,  and  removed  from  their  sees  six  bishops  who 
had  paid  fees  to  secure  consecration  and  confessed  their  guilt. 
He  also  deposed  six  others  in  Asia  for  the  same  offence.  In 
place  of  Antoninus  he  consecrated  Heraclides  his  own  deacon, 
which  created  a  disturbance.  In  place  of  the  six  bishops  others 
were  appointed  who  w^ere  distinguished  by  greater  piety  and 
virtue.  When  Chrysostom  w^as  banished  all  these  were  deprived 
of  their  sees,  while  those  who  had  been  ejected  were  restored. 

Severian,  bishop  of  Gabala,  having  heard  that  Antiochus 
was  in  Constantinople  and  had  obtained  considerable  sums 
of  money  by  his  discourses  went  there  himself.  John,  when 
he  set  out  for  Ephesus,  recommended  him  as  his  deputy  in 
the  pulpit,  and  in  this  manner  Severian  became  known  to  the 
emperor  and  all  the  people. 

Callitrope,  the  widow  of  a  shipmaster,  had  been  unjustly 
taxed,  and  Paulacius,  the  prefect  of  Alexandria,  harshly  pressed 
the  poor  woman  for  the  amount  (500  gold  pieces).  She 
appealed  to  the  empress,  who  fined  Paulacius  100  pounds  of 
gold,  of  w^hich  the  sorely  afflicted  woman  only  received  thirty- 
six  pieces.  She  accordingly  took  refuge  with  the  general 
"port  in  a  storm,"  the  great  John,  who  brought  an  action 
against  Paulacius  for  the  payment  of  500  pieces  to  the  widow. 
This  roused  the  hostility  of  Eudoxia,  who  was  anxious  for 
Paulacius  to  be  let  off.  She  was  not  listened  to,  however,  and 
the  just  man  claimed  and  restored  to  the  ill-treated  woman 
that  of  w^hich  she  had  been  unjustly  defrauded.  Then  a 
w^onderful  thing  happened.  When  Eudoxia  sent  to  rescue 
Paulacius  in  despite  of  John,  an  angel  appeared  bearing  a 
spear  and  frightened  her  messengers,  so  that  their  mission  was 
unsuccessful.  In  consequence  of  these  and  similar  acts  of 
John,  Acacius  of  Beroea,  Theophilus,  Antiochus,  and  Severian, 
and  many  others,  whom  he  had  offended  by  his  reproaches, 
with  the  assistance  and  at  the  instigation  of  Eudoxia,  began 
to  plot  against  him.  Theophilus  accused  Peter,  chief  presbyter 
of  Alexandria,  of  having  administered  the  sacrament  to  a 
woman  w^ho  was  a  Manichaean ;  his  defence  was  that  she  had 
been  converted  and  that  it  was  by  his  permission  that  she  had 
been  admitted  by  him  to  the  communion.  In  proof  of  this 
he  called  to  witness  Isidore  the  presbyter  ^  and  hospitaller  of 

^  Priest  and  monk  (fifth  century  A.D. ).  He  was  a  great  friend  and 
chain uion  of  Athanasius. 


i84  GEORGE  OF  ALEXANDRIA 

Alexandria.  This  Isidore,  owing  to  his  blameless  character, 
had  formerly  been  sent  to  Damasus  ^  by  Theophilus,  and  had 
brought  from  Rome  to  Flavian  an  offer  of  friendship  and 
alliance,  after  the  two  Churches  had  been  at  variance  for 
twenty  years.  The  evidence  of  Isidore  roused  the  anger  of 
Theophilus,  who  expelled  Peter  from  the  Church  and  falsely 
accused  Isidore  of  gross  immorality.  When  the  falsehood 
was  discovered,  Theophilus  was.  roused  to  further  villainy, 
which  was  increased  by  the  following  incident.  A  certain  rich 
woman  named  Theodota  had  given  Isidore  looo  pieces  of 
money  to  distribute  amongst  the  poor  without  consulting 
Theophilus,  which  Isidore  had  -done.  To  avoid  the  wrath  of 
Theophilus  he  fled  to  the  mountain  of  Nitria,^  where  he  had 
formerly  lived  in  a  cell.  The  chief  of  the  Egyptian  monks 
were  Dioscorus,  Ammonius,  Euthymius,  and  Eusebius,  four 
brothers,  called  "the  long"  from  the  height  of  their  stature. 
At  that  time  a  quarrel  had  broken  out  with  the  Anthropo- 
morphite  heretics.  When  some  ignorant  and  coarse  monks 
created  a  disturbance  in  Egypt,  Theophilus,  apparently  alarmed 
when  they  abused  him,  attempted  to  deceive  them  by  flattery, 
saying,  "  I  have  seen  your  faces  as  the  face  of  God."  But 
when  they  further  demanded  that  Origen,  because  he  asserted 
that  the  divinity  was  without  human  form,  should  be  anathema- 
tized, he  consented,  and  so  escaped  death.  Seizing  hold  of 
this  pretext  against  the  "long  brethren"  (since  they  would  no 
longer  associate  with  him  as  before,  and  denied  that  God  had 
a  human  form),  he  accused  them  to  the  monks  and  stirred  up 
that  ignorant  herd  against  them  and  also  against  Isidore,  on 
whose  account  he  was  the  more  hostile  to  them.  At  last,  after 
having  been  the  victims  of  intrigue  and  ill-treatment,  and  their 
cells  having  been  set  fire  to,  they  fled  to  Constantinople.  John 
received  them  kindly  and  sympathetically,  but  did  not  admit 
them  to  communion  for  fear  of  offending  Theophilus,  to  whom 
he  wrote  a  letter  proposing  reconciliation,  but  Theophilus  paid 
no  attention.  In  the  meantime  the  "long  brethren"  presented 
documents  containing  charges  against  Theophilus,  and  were 
in  turn  accused  by  others  at  his  instigation.  When  these  latter 
were  unable  to  prove  anything  they  were  thrown  into  prison 
and  flogged,  some  of  them  died  and  the  rest  were  condemned 

^  Pope  366-384  ;  a  Spaniard  by  birth.     His  secretary  was  St.  Jerome. 
^  In  the  district  of  lower  Egypt,  so  called  fi:om  the  natron  lakes. 


GEORGE   OF  ALEXANDRIA  185 

to  banishment  in  the  island  of  Proconnesus.^  John  informed 
Theophilus  of  the  charges  against  him,  to  which  Theophilus 
angrily  replied  :  "  I  believe  you  are  acquainted  with  the  canons 
of  the  council  of  Nicaea,  by  which  it  is  ordained  that  no  bishop 
shall  exercise  jurisdiction  beyond  his  own  province.  If  you 
are  not,  then  make  yourself  acquainted  with  them  and  do  not 
interfere  with  the  charges  against  me."  Notwithstanding,  the 
same  Theophilus  who  wrote  these  words  afterwards  condemned 
John,  although  he  belonged  to  another  diocese.  As  the  monks 
did  not  desist  from  their  accusations  against  Theophilus,  the 
emperor  ordered  him  to  present  himself  for  trial.  But  the 
animosity  against  John  increased  to  such  a  degree  that,  on  his 
arrival,  Theophilus  was  appointed  judge  of  John  himself 

The  wife  of  the  senator  Theognostus,  who  had  been  pro- 
scribed and  died  in  exile,  had  been  deprived  by  the  empress 
of  a  field  that  had  been  left  her.  She  accordingly  had  recourse 
to  John,  the  champion  of  widows,  but  although  he  spoke  with 
great  freedom  on  her  behalf  his  efforts  were  unsuccessful  and 
only  roused  the  hatred  of  the  empress.  He  accordingly  ordered 
that,  on  the  day  of  the  Exaltation  of  the  Cross  (the  14th  of 
September),  when  the  unjust  empress  was  about  to  enter  the 
church,  the  gates  should  be  shut  against  her.  His  order  was 
carried  out,  and  the  empress  retired  in  shame  and  anger,  and 
from  that  time  began  to  plot  John's  deposition,  banishment, 
and  every  other  degradation  that  her  indignation  suggested. 
When,  as  she  drew  near,  she  found  the  gates  of  the  church 
being  closed,  one  of  her  suite  drew  his  sword  against  those  who 
were  shutting  them ;  whereupon  his  hand  suddenly  withered, 
but  was  afterwards  restored  on  his  doing  homage  to  John. 

The  great  Epiphanius,  whom  Theophilus  had  beguiled  and 
stirred  up  against  John,  on  his  arrival  in  Constantinople  created 
a  disturbance.  He  ordained  a  deacon  at  Hebdomon  -  in 
St.  John's  Church  contrary  to  the  law,  performed  the  service 
without  the  permission  of  Chrysostom,  and  demanded  that  he 
should  condemn  the  wTitings  of  Origen.  Our  author  relates 
(as  is  also  stated  in  the  life  of  Epiphanius),  that  he  by  no 
means  approved  of  the  deposition  of  Chrysostom,  as  others 
believed  he  did,  in  spite  of  the  empress's  importunity.  He 
also  mentions  their  prediction  to  each  other,  that  neither  should 

^  Mod.  Marmara  (from  its  marble)  in  the  Propontis  (Sea  of  Marmora). 
^  See  p.  85,  note  ^. 


i86  GEORGE  OF  ALEXANDRIA 

see  his  throne  again.  Before  his  condemnation  John,  having 
heard  that  Eudoxia  was  angry  with  him,  deHvered  a  lengthy 
discourse  against  women  generally,  which  the  people  interpreted 
as  an  attack  on  the  empress.  On  the  arrival  of  Theophilus, 
the  intrigues  against  the  great  combatant  John  began.  When 
he  did  not  appear  at  the  synod,  Theophilus  and  his  party 
pronounced  sentence  against  him,  although  he  loudly  protested 
that  he  was  ready  to  appear  and  defend  himself,  if  his  avowed 
enemies  were  removed  from  the  council.  Forty  bishops  were 
ready  to  support  John  against  Theophilus  and  his  party,  but 
when  they  loudly  protested  he  comforted  them,  and  begged 
them  not  to  cause  dissension  in  the  Church.  After  his  deposi- 
tion, he  was  banished  to  Hieron,^  but,  in  consequence  of  a 
severe  shock  of  earthquake  which  was  ascribed  to  the  divine 
wrath,  he  was  brought  back  to  the  city  and  again  seated, 
against  his  will,  on  the  episcopal  throne.  He  declared  that 
he  did  not  wish  to  resume  his  pastoral  office  until  the  unjust 
sentence  against  him  had  been  submitted  to  investigation. 
Soon  afterwards,  Eudoxia  being  again  enraged  because  John 
had  attacked  her  in  reference  to  the  statue  which  had  been 
erected  in  her  honour  near  his  church  and  was  the  cause  of 
disturbance  inside,  intrigues  were  again  set  on  foot  against 
him.  Theophilus,  although  this  was  an  unexpected  piece  of 
good  fortune  for  him,  being  afraid  of  the  hatred  of  the  citizens, 
did  not  appear.  The  cause  of  their  hatred  against  him  was 
that,  after  the  deposition  of  John,  he  had  communicated  with 
the  "  long  brethren,"  by  whose  means  he  had  plotted  against 
him,  and  that  he  did  not  himself  abstain  from  reading  the 
writings  of  Origen,  on  account  of  which  he  had  accused  John. 
He  did  not,  therefore,  attend  in  person,  but  sent  others  to 
declare  that  John  ought  not  even  to  be  brought  to  trial,  since 
after  his  deposition  he  had  ventured  to  perform  the  services 
of  the  Church,  whereas  the  svnod  of  Antioch  left  no  room  for 
defence  to  one  who  did  so  after  he  had  been  deprived  of  office. 
Those  who'  sided  with  John  declared  that  both  the  canon  and 
the  synod  were  tainted  with  Arianism,  and  that  the  canon 
had  been  aimed  at  Athanasius ;  that  the  council  of  Sardica  ^ 
repudiated   the  validity  of  the   synod,   and  not  only  allowed 

^  At  the  mouth  of  the  Euxine. 

'  The  modern  Sofia,  capital  of  Bulgaria.     The  council  was  held  in  343 
or  347. 


GEORGE   OF  ALEXANDRIA  187 

Athanasius  to  defend  himself  but  also  to  perform  the  duties  of 
the  priesthood  with  Marcellus. 

Chrysostom  was  accordingly  prohibited  from  officiating  in 
the  church  and  even  from  entering  it.  The  festival  of  the 
Birth  of  Christ  was  at  hand,  and  until  the  feast  of  Pentecost 
and  for  five  days  afterwards  he  took  no  part  in  the  services. 
He  was  then  finally  expelled  from  the  city  and  the  church 
and  was  banished  to  Cucusus.^  At  that  time  a  fire  broke 
out  in  the  pulpit  and  spread  to  the  rest  of  the  building. 
Many  of  the  enemies  of  John  were  made  an  example,  being 
carried  off  by  filthy  diseases  or  heaven-sent  calamities.  John, 
after  he  was  deported  to  Cucusus,  both  lectured  in  public 
and  consecrated  several  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  He 
also  performed  many  miracles  during  his  banishment  and 
after  his  death,  which  Basiliscus,  bishop  of  Comana  and 
martyr,^  having  appeared  to  him,  foretold.  He  was  buried 
in  the  same  grave  as  the  martyr. 

Theophilus  and  his  party  condemned  Heraclides,  bishop 
of  Ephesus,  in  his  absence,  and,  after  suffering  cruel  indig- 
nities, Serapion  was  deprived  of  the  bishopric  of  Heraclea, 
to  which  he  had  been  consecrated  by  John  after  his  first 
return  from  exile.  A  eunuch  of  the  tribune  Victor,  a  man 
of  disgraceful  character,  was  elected  in  his  stead.  Other 
bishops,  about  twenty  in  number,  were  driven  from  their 
sees,  together  wdth  a  large  number  of  priests,  deacons,  and 
laymen,  who  were  accused  of  favouring  John,  including  some 
pious  women,  the  most  distinguished  of  whom  were  Olympias,^ 
Pentadia,  Procle,  and  Silvane. 

Innocent,  bishop  of  Rome,  strongly  supported  the  cause 
of  John,  although  without  success.  He  sent  messengers  who 
were  dismissed  with  contumely  and  wrote  letters,  but  his  efforts 
were  unavailing.  Subsequently,  Arsacius  was  with  difficulty 
induced  to  enter  his  name  on  the  diptychs.*  Some  time 
afterwards,  Proclus  transported  his  remains  to  Constantinople. 

This  writer  appears  to  relate  much  that  is  contrary  to  the 
truth  of  history,  but  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the  reader 
from  picking  out  what  is  useful  and  passing  over  the  rest. 

^  A  village  on  the  borders  of  Armenia  and  Cilicia. 

-  312.  ^  See  p.  152,  note  ^. 

^  Literally,  "a  double-folded  tablet  "  of  wood,  ivory,  or  metal.  In  tie 
early  Church,  the  tablets  on  which  were  written  the  names  of  those 
specially  commemorated  at  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist. 


i88  PHLEGON   OF  TRALLES 

XCVII 

Read  the  Collection  of  ChTO?iicles  a?id  List  of  Olympitui 
Victors  by  Phlegon  ^  of  Tralles,  a  freedman  of  the  emperor 
Hadrian.  The  work  is  dedicated  to  a  certain  Alcibiades,  one 
of  the  emperor's  bodyguards.  It  begins  with  the  ist  Olym- 
piad,^ because,  as  nearly  all  other  writers  affirm,  there  are  no 
careful  or  accurate  accounts  of  preceding  periods,  but  different 
writers  make  different  statements,  and  even  those  who  have 
been  eager  to  obtain  the  credit  of  writing  about  them  con- 
tradict themselves.  For  this  reason,  as  we  have  said,  the 
author  begins  with  the  ist  Olympiad,  and  goes  doAvn,  as 
he  himself  says,  to  the  times  of  Hadrian. 

I  have  read  as  far  as  the  177th  Olympiad,^  in  which 
Hecatomnus  of  Miletus  was  victor  in  the  stadium  *  and  diaulos, 
and  in  the  race  of  men  in  armour  three  times ;  Hypsicles  the 
Sicyonian  and  Gaius  of  Rome  in  the  long  race ;  Aristonymidas 
of  Cos  in  \.\\Q pentathluni ;  ^  Isidore  of  Alexandria  in  wrestling; 
Aptotus  in  the  periodos;^  Atyanas  the  son  of  Hippocrates, 
a  native  of  Adramyttium,  in  boxing  ;  Sphodrias  the  Sicyonian 
in  i\\Q pancratium P  Among  the  youths  Sosigenes  of  Asia  in 
the  race ;  Apollonius  of  Cyparissus  in  the  wrestling-match  ; 
Sotericus  of  Elis  in  the  boxing-match ;  Galas  of  Elis  in  the 
pancratium ;  Hecatomnus  of  Miletus  in  the  armoured  race 
(he  was  crowned  three  times  in  the  same  day,  in  the  stadium, 
the  diaulos,  and  the  armoured  race) ;  Aristolochus  of  Elis  in 
the  four-horsed  chariot  race ;  Hagemon  of  Elis  with  his 
race-horse ;  Hellanicus  of  Elis  with  his  pair  of  horses,  and 
his  four-horsed  chariot ;  Cletias  of  Elis  with  his  pair ;  and 
Callippus  of  Pelion  with  his  race-horse. 

At  that  time  LucuUus  ^  was  besieging  Aniisus,^  but  having 

^  Of  Tralles  in  Lydia,  lived  till  the  reign  of  i\ntoninus  Pius.  His 
treatises  On  Wonderful  Things  and  On  Long- lived  Ferscns  are  extant. 

2    776  B.C.  ^    72-69  V,.C. 

*  Racing,  a  single  course,  the  diaulos  being  a  double  course. 

^  The  "five  exercises,"  running,  leaping,  wrestling,  boxing,  discus- 
ihrowing. 

^  The  period  embraced  all  the  games,  so  that  "to  conquer  in  the 
period"  meant  to  be  victorious  in  all. 

'^  A  contest  combining  both  wrestling  and  boxing. 

^  Lucius  Licinius  LucuHus  [c.  110-57),  Roman  general,  conqueror  of 
Mithradates.  He  was  famous  for  his  luxurious  banquets,  which  have 
become  proverbial. 

^  Mod.  Samsun,  on  the  coast  of  Pontus. 


PHLEGON   OF  TRALLES  189 

left  Murena  ^  with  two  legions  to  carry  on  the  siege,  he  him- 
self set  out  with  three  others  against  the  territory  of  the 
Cabiri,  where  he  went  into  winter  quarters.  He  also  ordered 
Hadrian  to  make  war  against  Mithradates,  who  was  defeated. 
An  earthquake  in  Rome  did  much  damage,  and  many  other 
events  happened  during  this  Olympiad.  In  its  third  year  the 
population  according  to  the  census  was  910,000.  Sinatruces, 
king  of  the  Parthians,  was  succeeded  by  Phraates  -  Theos,  and 
Phaedras  the  Epicurean  ^  by  Patron.  Virgilius  Maro  was  born 
on  the  15th  of  October  in  this  year.  In  the  fourth  year  of 
this  Olympiad  Tigranes  and  Mithradates,  having  collected  an 
army  of  40,000  foot  and  30,000  horse,  who  were  drawn  up 
in  the  Roman  order  of  battle,  engaged  LucuUus  and  were 
defeated ;  Tigranes  lost  5000  killed,  a  large  number  of 
prisoners,  besides  a  promiscuous  rabble.  Catulus^  dedicated 
the  Capitol  at  Rome.  Metellus  ^  set  out  against  Crete  with 
three  legions  and  occupied  the  island  ;  having  defeated  Lao- 
sthenes  and  shut  up  the  inhabitants  within  their  walls,  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  imperator.  The  pirate  Athenodorus 
enslaved  the  people  of  Delos  and  insulted  the  images  of 
the  so-called  gods ;  but  Gaius  Triarius  having  repaired  the 
damaged  parts  of  the  city,  fortified  the  island. 

We  have  read  five  books  as  far  as  this  Olympiad.  The 
author's  style,  though  not  too  mean  and  ordinary,  does  not 
always  preserve  the  Attic  character.  But  his  ill-timed,  if 
laborious,  diligence  in  reckoning  the  Olympiads,  his  lists  of 
names  of  the  victors  and  their  achievements,  and  his  accounts 
of  the  oracles,  not  only  disgust  the  reader,  since  they  do  not 
allow  a  glimpse  of  anything  else  to  appear,  but  also  make 
the  language  disagreeable  and  rob  it  of  all  charm.  He  also 
attaches  undue  importance  to  oracles  of  all  kinds. 

^  Lucius  Licinius  Murena,  consul  6^  B.C.  He  was  accused  of  bribery, 
defended  by  Cicero  in  a  speech  still  extant,  and  acquitted. 

2  Phraates  III. 

^  President  of  the  Epicurean  school  at  Athens,  died  70  B.C.  Cicero 
draws  freely  from  his  work  Ofi  the  Gods  (a  fragment  of  which  was  dis- 
covered at  Herculaneum)  in  his  De  Natitra  Deoriim. 

*  Quintus  Lutatius  Catulus.  The  Capitol  had  been  di-'stroyed  during 
the  civil  wars  of  Sulla's  time. 

^  Quintus  Caecilius  Metellus,  consul  69,  conqueror  of  Crete  after  a  three 
years'  campaign.     He  received  the  title  of  Creticus  for  his  services. 


190  ZOSIMUS 


XCVIII 


Read  the  History  of  count  Zosimus,^  ex-advocate  of  the 
fisc,  in  six  books.  Being  an  impious  heathen,  he  frequently 
yelps  at  those  of  the  true  faith.  His  style  is  concise,  clear, 
and  pure,  and  not  devoid  of  charm.  He  begins  his  history 
almost  from  the  time  of  Augustus,  and  glances  rapidly  at 
the  emperors  down  to  Diocletian,  merely  mentioning  their 
proclamation  and  the  order  of  succession.  From  Diocletian 
he  treats  at  greater  length  of  his  successors  in  five  books. 
The  first  book  contains  the  emperors  from  Augustus  to  Dio- 
cletian and  the  sixth  book  ends  at  the  time  when  Alaric,  who 
was  besieging  Rome  for  the  second  time,  when  the  citizens 
were  reduced  to  desperate  straits,  raised  the  siege  and  pro- 
claimed Attalus  emperor.  Soon  afterwards  he  deposed  him 
because  of  his  incapacity,  and  sent  an  embassy  to  Honorius, 
who  was  then  at  Ravenna,  with  proposals  for  peace.  But 
Sarus,  himself  a  Goth  and  an  enemy  of  Alaric,  with  about 
300  men  attached  himself  to  Honorius,  and,  promising  to  do 
his  utmost  to  assist  him  against  Alaric,  succeeded  in  making 
the  negotiations  unsuccessful.     Here  the  sixth  book  ends. 

It  may  be  said  that  Zosimus  did  not  himself  write  the 
history,  but  that  he  copied  that  of  Eunapius,^  from  which  it 
only  differs  in  brevity  and  in  being  less  abusive  of  Stilicho. 
In  other  respects  his  account  is  much  the  same,  especially  in 
the  attacks  upon  the  Christian  emperors.  I  think  that  both 
these  authors  brought  out  new  editions,  although  I  have  not 
seen  the  first  edition,  but  it  may  be  conjectured  from  the 
title  of  the  "new  edition,"  which  I  have  read,  that,  like 
Eunapius,  he  published  a  second  edition.  He  is  clearer  and 
more  concise,  as  we  have  said,  than  Eunapius,  and  rarely 
employs  figures  of  speech. 

^  His  history,  probably  written  between  450-501,  really  begins  with  the 
death  of  Commodus  (192)  and  ends  at  410,  just  before  Alaiic's  siege  of 
Rome,  He  is  an  extremely  bigoted  heathen,  fond  of  the  old  mythological 
legends,  oracles,  prodigies,  and  everything  marvellous,  ignorant  of  geo- 
graphy, and  pays  no  attention  to  chronology.  But  the  work  is  valuable 
as  mainly  compiled  from  trustworthy  contemporary  authorities  {see 
Cod.  LXXX). 

a  Cod.  LXXVH. 


HERODIAN  191 

XCIX 

Read  the  eight  books  of  the  History  of  Herodian.^     Begin- 
ning from  the  death  of  Marcus  AureHus,  he  relates  how  his 
son  Com  modus,  who  succeeded  him,   having  shown  himself 
utterly   degenerate   and    completely   under    the   influence   of 
flatterers,  was  put  to  death  by  his  concubine  JMarcia  as  the 
result  of  a  plot  by  Laetus  and  Eclectus.     He  was  succeeded 
by  Pertinax,  an  old  man  of  high  character ;  but  the  praetorian 
guards,  who  hated   virtue,  slew  him   in  the  palace.     Julian, 
who  obtained  the  throne  by  bribing  the  praetorians,  was  soon 
afterwards   put  to   death   by  them.     Niger, ^  who  appears  to 
have  been  an    estimable    man,   was    declared  emperor,  while 
Julian   was    still    alive.     Severus,^    keen    witted,    astute,    and 
resolute  in  the  presence  of  dangers,  having  defeated  and  put 
to    death    his    rival,   ascended   the   throne,   and   removed   all 
who  resisted  him  by  open  violence  or  ensnaring  craft.     He 
treated  his  subjects  with  the  greatest  haughtiness.     He  died 
of  illness  *  while  waging  war  against  the  Britons.     Antoninus,^ 
the  elder  of  his  two  sons,  having  made  a  treaty  with  them, 
returned  to  Italy,     He  unwillingly  accepted  his  brother  Geta 
as  his  partner  in  the  empire,  and  soon  afterwards  murdered 
him  in  his  mother's  arms.     Eager  to  surpass  all  in  vice  and 
cruelty,   he  fell  a  victim    in   Syria  to  a  plot   set  on  foot  by 
Macrinus,   who   was    himself  threatened   with    death   by   the 
emperor  and  was  anxious   to  prevent  it.     Macrinus,   an  old 
man,  dilatory  and  lacking  in  self-control,  but  in  other  respects 
a  worthy  person,  became  emperor  after  the  death  of  Antoninus. 
Moesa,  the  sister  of  Julia,  had  two  daughters,   Soaemis  and 
Mamaea;  the  former  had  a  son  named  Bassianus,  the  latter 
a  son  named  Alexinus,  both  reputed  sons  of  Antoninus.     The 
army,  on  some  slight  pretext,  proclaimed  Bassianus  ^  emperor 
in  the  camp,  and  bestowed  upon  him  the  name  of  Antoninus. 
Macrinus,  defeated  in  battle,  fled  from  the  borders  of  Phoenicia 
and  Syria  and  retired  to  Chalcedon,  intending  to  make  his 

^  Flouiished  about  A. d.  23S.  His  history  embraces  the  period  from 
the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius  to  the  death  of  Gordian  (180-238),  Hi-; 
geography  and  chronology  are  defective.  For  the  history  of  the  period 
see  Gibbon,  chs.  4-7. 

^  Gaius  Pescennius  Niger.  '  Lucius  Septiinius  Severus. 

*  At  Eboracum  (York).  ^  More  commonly  known  as  Caracalln. 

^  Variiis   Avitus    Bassianus    (afterwards    Marcus    Aurelius   Antoninus) 
more  commonly  known  as  Heliogabalus  (more  correctly  Elagabalus). 


192  HERODIAN 

way  from  there  to  Rome ;  but  he  was  intercepted  by  the 
emissaries  of  Antoninus,  who  cut  off  his  head  and  carried  it 
back  with  them. 

Antoninus,  as  long  as  he  followed  the  counsel  of  his  mother, 
ruled  with  moderation,  adopted  Alexinus — whose  name  he 
changed  to  Alexander  ^ — as  his  son,  and  created  him  Caesar. 
But  after  he  fell  under  the  influence  of  flatterers,  there  was  no 
excess  of  vice  and  intemperance  of  which  he  was  not  guilty. 
His  attempted  plot  against  Alexander  was  frustrated  by  the 
soldiers,  and  when  he  decided  to  punish  them,  they  put  him  to 
death.  Alexander,  the  son  of  Mamaea,  reigned  fourteen  years 
to  the  best  of  his  ability  with  goodness  and  clemency  and 
without  bloodshed  ;  but  owing,  it  is  said,  to  the  avarice  and 
meanness  of  his  mother,  they  were  both  put  to  death,  and 
Maximin  was  proclaimed  emperor. 

Maximin,  a  brutal  and  oppressive  tyrant,  a  man  of 
enormous  stature  and  extremely  cruel,  reigned  nearly  three 
years.  The  soldiers  in  Africa  revolted  and  slew  the  governor, 
a  man  of  like  character  appointed  by  Maximin,  and  elected 
the  proconsul  Gordian  (a  man  eighty  years  of  age)  emperor 
against  his  will.  Rome  joyfully  accepted  his  election,  deprived 
Maximin  of  all  his  honours,  and  at  the  same  time  declared  the 
proconsul's  son,  Gordian,  joint-emperor  with  his  father.  While 
Maximin  was  preparing  for  war,  Gordian,  who  had  occupied 
Carthage  together  with  his  son,  seeing  that  his  position  was 
desperate,  hanged  himself:  his  son  was  defeated  by  Maximin, 
and  fell  on  the  field  of  battle.  The  Romans,  deeply  grieved  at 
their  death,  hating  and  at  the  same  time  fearing  Maximin, 
proclaimed  Balbinus  and  Maximus  emperors  at  Rome.  The 
soldiers  created  a  disturbance  and  demanded  that  Gordian, 
the  grandson  of  the  elder  Gordian,  and  his  daughter's  son, 
quite  a  boy,  should  be  associated  with  them  in  the  empire. 
While  Maximus  was  advancing  against  Maximin,  the  latter  was 
murdered  by  his  own  soldiers,  his  head  was  taken  to  Maximus, 
and  thence  to  Rome.  Soon  afterwards,  the  soldiers  again 
revolted,  dragged  Maximus  and  Balbinus  from  the  palace  and, 
after  inflicting  every  insult  upon  them,  put  them  to  death  and 
bestowed  the  throne  upon  Gordian  alone,  now  about  thirteen 
years  of  age.     Here  the  eighth  book  ends. 

The   writer's    style    is   clear,    brilliant,    and    agreeable;   his 

^  Alexander  Severus. 


GELASIUS  OF  CYZICUS  193 

diction  avoids  extremes,  being  neither  too  much  given  to 
atticism,  which  violates  the  natural  charm  of  ordinary  language, 
nor  so  careless  as  to  degenerate  into  meanness  to  the 
sacrifice  of  all  the  rules  of  art.  He  does  not  take  a  pride  in 
what  is  superfluous,  nor  does  he  omit  anything  that  is  necessary  ; 
in  a  word,  he  is  inferior  to  few  in  all  the  good  qualities  of  an 
historian. 


Read  several  of  the  Declamations  of  the  emperor  Hadrian,^ 
distinguished  by  moderation  of  style,  and  not  disagreeable 
to  read. 

CI 

Read  the  consular  and  imperial  orations  of  Victorinus,  the 
son  of  Lampadius  of  Antioch,  in  honour  of  the  emperor 
Zeno,  in  whose  reign  he  lived  to  a  great  age.  His  style  is 
distinguished  by  clearness,  absence  of  redundancy,  and  the  use 
of  ordinary  language. 

cn 

Read  the  treatise  of  Gelasius,^  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Pales- 
tine, Agai?ist  the  Ano?nocans,  in  one  volume.  His  style  is  free 
from  superfluities,  and  vigorous ;  he  makes  frequent  use  of 
Attic  words,  his  principles  are  carefully  worked  out,  and  he  is 
not  at  a  loss  for  arguments  ;  in  all  respects  he  is  a  good  writer, 
except  that  he  childishly  employs  the  rules  and  terms  of  logic 
till  they  become  wearisome,  as  if  he  had  just  peeped  into 
dialectical  text-books,  and  uses  his  words  wrongly.  Certainly 
he  inserts  an  apology  for  this  ill-timed  language,  but  what  he 
intended  to  excuse  he  ought  never  to  have  used  at  all.  In 
addition,  the  arrangement  of  the  work  is  somewhat  faulty.  The 
same  little  volume  contained  the  various  arguments  by  Diodorus 
of  Tarsus  Concerni^ig  the  Holy  Spirit^  in  which  he  shows  that 
he  is  already  infected  by  the  taint  of  the  Nestorian  heresy. 

1  Emperor  A.D.  117- 138.  He  was  a  great  patron  of  liteiature,  and 
wrote  several  works  himself,  both  prose  and  verse.  His  address  to  the 
soul  is  famous  (see  Life^  by  F.  Gregorovius,  Eng.  tr.  by  M.  E.  Robinson, 
1898). 

2  See  Cod.  LXXXVni. 

VOL.  I.  N 


194  PHILO   JUDAEUS 

cm 

Read  the  Allegories  of  the  Sacred  Laws,  and  Oft  the  Civil 
Life,  by  Philo  Judaeus.^ 

CIV 

Read,  also,  his  description  of  the  lives  of  those  amongst  the 
Jews  who  led  a  life  of  contemplative  or  active  philosophy, 
the  Essenes  ^  and  Therapeutae.  The  latter  not  only  built 
monasteries  and  holy  places  {senmeia,  to  use  their  own  word), 
but  also  laid  down  the  rules  of  monasticism  followed  by  the 
monks  of  the  present  day. 

CV 

Read,  also,  his  two  tractates,  Censure  of  Gaius^  and  Censure 
of  Flaccus,^  in  which,  more  than  in  his  other  writings,  he  shows 
vigour  of  expression  and  beauty  of  language.  But  he  frequently 
errs  by  changing  his  ideas  and  in  describing  other  things  in 
a  manner  at  variance  with  Jewish  philosophy.  He  flourished 
in  the  times  of  the  emperor  Gains,  to  whom  he  states  that  he 
sent  a  deputation  on  behalf  of  his  own  people,  while  Agrippa 
was  king  of  Judaea.    He  was  the  author  of  numerous  treatises 

^  c.  20  B.C. -A. D.  40.  Tlie  most  important  Jewish  Hellenist,  called  the 
Jewish  Plato,  born  at  Alexandria  of  a  priestly  family.  Hardly  any  particulars 
are  known  of  his  life.  In  the  year  40  he  was  head  of  a  deputation  of  his 
countrymen  to  the  emperor  Caligula  at  Rome,  to  protest  against  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Jews  in  Alexandria.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  works,  purely 
philosophical,  exegetical  (on  the  Pentateuch),  historical,  and  apologetic. 
Amongst  them  are:  Oiithe  hidestrudibility  of  the  World  ;  lliat  every  Good 
Alan  is  Free;  Allegories  of  the  Sacred  Law,  full  of  allegorizing  and 
constant  attempts  to  combine  Judaism  and  Hellenism  ;  On  the  Contem- 
plative Life ;  Against  FlaccHS  [^os&\x\ox  of  Egypt);  and  The  Embassy  to 
Gains.  His  philosophy  is  a  sort  of  neo-Platonism — an  endeavour  to 
reconcile  the  teaching  of  Plato  and  of  the  Bible.  There  are  two  worlds, 
an  intelligible  and  a  sensible,  the  latter  formed  by  God  on  the  model  of  a 
w^orld  of  ideas,  invariable  and  coeternal,  personified  under  the  name  of 
Logos  (Reason),  an  emanation  from  God.  "The  Logos,  intermediate 
between  Cod  and  the  world,  dwells  with  God  as  His  wisdom,  and  as  the 
abiding  place  of  the  Ideas." 

*  They  were  divided  into  practici  (active),  who  lived  in  common,  and 
theordici  (contemplative),  who  lived  alone.  In  Egypt  and  Greece  the 
latter  were  called  therapeutae. 

^  Roman  emperor  A.D.  37-41,  more  commonly  known  as  Caligula. 

*  Avillius  F.,  governor  of  Egypt,  and  persecutor  of  the  Jews. 


THEOGNOSTUS   OF  ALEXANDRIA  195        ! 

on  various  subjects,  ethical  discussions,  and  commentaries  on 
the  Old    Testament,  mostly    consisting   of  forced   allegorical        , 
explanations.     I    believe    that   it  was  from  him    that   all  the 
allegorical  interpretation  of  Scripture  originated  in  the  Church. 
It  is  said  that  he  was  converted  to  Christianity,  but  afterwards 
abandoned  it  in  a  fit  of  anger  and  indignation.     Before  this,        : 
during  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Claudius,  he  had  visited  Rome,        ; 
where  he   met  St.   Peter,  chief  of  the  apostles,  and  became 
intimate  with  him,  which  explains  why  he  thought  the  disciples 
of  St.  Mark  the  evangelist,  who  was  a  disciple  of  St.    Peter, 
worthy  of  praise,  of  whom  he  says  that  they  led  a  contemplative 
life  amongst  the  Jews.     He  calls  their  dwellings  monasteries,        j 
and  declares  that   they  always  led  an  ascetic  life,  practising        | 
fasting,  prayer,  and  poverty. 

Philo  came  of  an  Alexandrian  priestly  family.     He  was  so       ; 
admired  amongst  the  Greeks  for  his  power  of  eloquence  that  it       j 
was  a  common  saying  amongst  them  :  "  Either  Plato  philonizes 
or  Philo  platonizes." 

CVI  i 

Read  the  work  by  Theognostus  of  Alexandria,^  entitled  The       \ 
Outlifies  of  the  Blessed  Theognostus  of  Alexaiidria^  Interpreter  of 
the  Scriptures^  in  seven  books.     In  the  first  book  he  treats  of 
the  Father,  and  endeavours   to   show  that  He  is  the  creator 
of  the   universe,    in   opposition    to    those   who   make  matter 
coeternal  with  God ;  in  the  second,  he  employs  arguments  to 
prove  that  it  is  necessary  that  the  Father  should  have  a  Son ; 
and  when  he  says  Son,  he  demonstrates  that  He  is  a  creation, 
and  has  charge  of  beings  endowed  with  reason.     Like  Origen,       ; 
he  says  other  similar  things  of  the  Son,  being  either  led  astray 
by  the  same  impiety,  or  (one  might  say)  eager  to  exert  himself 
in  his  defence,  putting  forward    these  arguments   by  way  of 
rhetorical  exercise,  not  as  the  expression  of  his  real  opinion  ; 
or,  lastly^  he  may  allow  himself  to  depart  a  little  from  the  truth       1 
in  view  of  the  feeble  condition  of  his  hearer,  who  is,  perhaps, 
entirely  ignorant  of  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  faith  and       ! 
incapable  of  receiving  the  true  doctrine,  and  because  he  thinks       ! 
that  any  knowledge  of  the  Son  would  be  more  profitable  to  the 
hearer  than  never  to  have  heard  of  Him  and  complete  ignorance 
of   Him.     In  oral  discussion  it  would  not  appear  absurd  or 

^  Flourished  about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  A.  d. 


196  BASIL  OF  CILICIA 

blameworthy  to  use  incorrect  language,  for  such  discussions 
are  generally  carried  on  according  to  the  judgment  and  opinion 
and  energy  of  the  disputant ;  but  in  written  discourse,  which 
is  to  be  set  forth  as  a  law  for  all,  if  any  one  puts  forward 
the  above  defence  of  blasphemy  to  exculpate  himself,  his 
justification  is  a  feeble  one.  As  in  the  second  book,  so  in  the 
third,  in  treating  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  author  introduces 
arguments  by  which  he  endeavours  to  show  the  existence  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  but  in  other  respects  talks  as  much  nonsense 
as  Origen  in  his  Pri?icipks.  In  the  fourth  book,  he  talks 
similar  nonsense  about  angels  and  demons,  attributing  refined 
bodies  to  them.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth,  he  relates  how  the 
Saviour  became  incarnate,  and  attempts,  after  his  manner,  to 
show  that  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  was  possible.  Here,  also, 
he  trifles  greatly,  especially  when  he  ventures  to  say  that  we 
imagine  the  Son  to  be  confined  now  to  this  place,  now  to  that, 
but  that  in  energy  alone  He  is  not  restricted.  In  the  seventh 
book,  entitled  On  God's  Creation^  he  discusses  other  matters 
in  a  greater  spirit  of  piety — especially  at  the  end  of  the  work 
concerning  the  Son. 

His  style  is  vigorous  and  free  from  superfluities.  He  uses 
beautiful  language,  as  in  ordinary  Attic,  in  such  a  manner  that 
he  does  not  depart  from  the  ordinary  style  in  composition  and 
does  not  sacrifice  its  dignity  for  the  sake  of  clearness  and 
accuracy.     He  flourished  .  .  . 

CVII 

Read  the  work  of  the  presbyter  Basil  of  Cilicia,^  written 
against  John  Scythopolita,  whom  he  calls  "  pettifogger "  and 
several  other  names,  and  otherwise  abuses.  For  instance,  he 
asserts  that  he  was  suspected  of  being  a  Manichaean  ;  that  he 
limited  the  sacred  forty  days  to  three  weeks,  and  during  them 
did  not  even  abstain  from  eating  fowl ;  that  he  took  part  in 
heathen  rites ;  that  he  was  greatly  given  to  gluttony,  and  never 
communicated  while  the  sacred  office  was  being  performed, 
but  after  the  Gospel  took  part  in  the  holy  mysteries  with  the 
boys,  and  immediately  hurried  to  the  holy  table.  Such  insulting 
and  brutal  remarks  are  scattered  broadcast  throughout  the 
work.  The  work  is  dramatic  in  character,  in  the  form  of  a 
dialogue,  dedicated  to  a  certain  Leontius,  who  had  asked  the 

1  See  Cod.  XLII. 


BASIL  OF  CILICIA  197 

author  to  write  it.  The  characters  are  Lampadius,  who  defends 
Basil,  and  Marinus,  who  defends  John.  Marinus,  during  the 
course  of  the  discussion,  is  represented  as  condemning  his 
cHent  and  going  over  to  Lampadius,  a  certain  Tarasius  being 
then  introduced  as  interlocutor.  The  disputants  are  repre- 
sented as  asking  and  answering  questions  intended  to  benefit 
themselves  and  to  censure  and  perplex  the  opponent's  advocate. 
The  whole  work  is  divided  into  sixteen  books  :  the  first  thirteen 
are  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  in  which  the  author  has  expended 
great  energy  and  labour  in  attacking  John's  first  book  alone, 
while  the  remaining  three  are  directed  against  the  statements 
in  the  second  and  third  books. 

In  the  first  book,  after  the  preface  is  concluded,  he  takes 
his  stand  against  two  chief  points,  the  first  that  "The  word 
suffered  in  the  flesh,"  ^  the  second,  "To  say  Christ  is  the 
same  as  saying  God."  In  the  second  book  he  attempts  to 
show  that  he  has  been  unjustly  blamed  and  that  John  has 
misunderstood  the  words,  "  There  shall  come  forth  a  rod  out 
of  the  stem  of  Jesse."  ^  In  the  third  book  he  asks  how  the 
words,  "Now  the  son  of  man  was  glorified  and  God  was 
glorified  in  him,"  ^  and  the  rest  of  the  passage  are  to  be 
understood.  In  the  fourth  book,  he  inquires  how  the  body  is 
said  to  be  peculiar  to  God,  about  His  unity,  the  words,  "  God, 
thy  God  hath  anointed  thee,"*  and  "I  sanctify  myself."^  In 
this  book  Marinus,  abandoning  the  role  of  opponent,  goes 
over  to  Lampadius.  In  the  fifth  book,  where  Tarasius  is 
introduced  as  taking  up  the  part  of  Marinus,  the  author  makes 
more  bitter  accusations  against  John,  with  which  nearly  the 
whole  book  is  taken  up.  In  the  sixth  book  he  attacks  more 
severely  the  union  of  Christ  our  Saviour.  He  also  discusses 
the  words  "God,  thy  God,  hath  anointed  thee,"  and  the 
attitude  of  the  Church  towards  the  expression  "  He  was  made 
flesh."  ^  In  the  eighth  book,  he  falls  headlong  into  numerous 
absurdities  in  discussing  "  The  Word  was  made  flesh "  and 
also  "  No  man  hath  ascended  up  to  heaven,  but  he  that  came 
down  from  heaven,  even  the  Son  of  man  which  is  in  heaven."  ^ 
In  the  ninth  book  he   speaks  of   "  That  Rock  was  Christ,"  ^ 

^   I  Peter  iv.  i.  ^  Isaiah  ii.  i. 

'  John  xii.  31.  *  Psalm  xlv.  7. 

^  John  xvii.  19.  *  John  i.  14. 

"^  John  iii.  13.  ®  i  Cor.  x.  4. 


198  BASIL   OF  CILICIA 

"Thy  life  shall  hang  in  doubt  before  thee,"^  and  "This  gate 
shall  be  shut,"  ^  to  all  of  which  he  gives  an  impious  interpreta- 
tion. The  tenth  book  deals  with  "  To  you  is  the  word  of 
this  salvation  sent "  ^  and  "  He  who  spared  not  his  own  Son  "  ^ 
and  "  Of  the  Word  of  life,"  which  your  hands  have  touched, 
and  "  God  so  loved  the  world  that  he  gave  his  only-begotten 
Son"^  and  so  on.  In  the  eleventh  book  he  discusses,  "This 
is  our  God,  there  shall  none  other  be  accounted  of  in  com- 
parison of  him,"®  and  "Afterwards  did  he  show  himself  upon 
earth  and  conversed  with  men,"®  and  "Arise,  O  God,  and 
judge  the  earth," ''  and  "  He  that  hath  seen  me  hath  seen  the 
Father,"^  and  against  those  who  asserted  that  the  apostles 
could  not  teach  the  truth  owing  to  the  weakness  of  their 
hearers.  In  the  twelfth  book  he  teaches  that  one  of  the 
Trinity  suffered,  and  discusses  "  Had  they  known  it,  they 
would  not  have  crucified  the  Lord  of  glory."  ^  He  puts 
forward  a  weak  and  sinful  plea  for  our  denying  that  there 
are  two  Christs,  in  which  his  defence  is  prompted  by  his 
wishes.  In  the  thirteenth  book  he  inquires  how  it  is  that 
there  are  not  two  Sons,  and  indeed  it  would  seem  from  his 
defence  that  there  must  be.  Tarasius,  as  if  unable  to  meet 
the  arguments  against  him,  remains  silent,  and  Basil  (or  Lam- 
padius)  discontinues  his  zealous  questions  and  answers.  The 
last  three  books  are  more  detailed,  and  attack  the  statements 
of  John  in  the  second  and  third  books. 

This  Basil,  as  he  himself  tells  us,  was  a  presbyter  of  the 
Church  at  Antioch,  when  Flavian  was  bishop  there,  and 
Arcadius  emperor  of  Rome.  His  style  is  poor,  and  especially 
in  the  dialogues  differs  little  from  the  language  of  the  common 
people.  Nor  is  he  accurate  in  composition,  but  frequently 
makes  mistakes  and  uses  solecisms ;  at  the  same  time,  he 
endeavours  to  be  clear.  His  arguments  against  the  orthodox 
are  keen  and  show  the  practised  logician ;  in  fact,  he  seems 
to  have  wasted  his  whole  life  in  his  idle  attacks  upon  the 
true  faith.  Although  he  is  tainted  with  Nestorianism,  he  does 
not  defend  Nestorius,  but  praises  the  fathers  Theodore  and 

^  Deuter.  xxviii.  66.  ^  Ezekiel  xliv.  2. 

^  Acts  xiii.  26.  ^  Romans  viii.  32. 

^  John  iii.  16.  ^  Baruch  iii.  36-38. 

'  Psalm  Ixxxi.  8,  ^  John  xiv.  9. 

9  I  Cor.  ii.  8. 


THEODORE  OF  ALEXANDRIA       199 

Diodorus.  He  does  not  openly  use  so  much  blasphemous 
language  against  the  divine  Cyril.  He  declares  that  John, 
the  object  of  his  attack,  relies  for  support  on  nothing  but  the 
twelve  "  chapters  "  of  Cyril,  especially  the  twelfth,  in  which  he 
introduces  the  suffering  of  God.  AVith  this  he  concludes  his 
idle  labours.  As  mentioned  above,  the  work  is  dedicated  to 
a  certain  Leontius,  whom  he  pompously  calls  most  holy,  most 
beloved  of  God,  and  Father. 

CVHI 

Read  the  work  of  Theodore  the  monk  Agahtsf  Themisfius^ 
entitled  :  "  A  brief  refutation  of  the  old  rash  and  absurd 
attacks  of  Themistius  on  the  Fathers,  now  worked  out  by  us 
in  view  of  the  questions  and  propositions  put  forward  by  him 
against  the  truth,  and  a  clear  and  accurate  arrangement  of 
the  subject  under  discussion."  This  title  is  more  like  a  book 
than  the  title  of  a  book.  Both  Theodore  and  Themistius  are 
heretics,  adherents  of  Severus,  and  belonging  to  the  T/ieo- 
i)aschitae}  Themistius  (or  Calonymus,  as  he  also  calls 
himself)  was  the  chief  of  the  sect  called  Agnoetae,^  on  whom 
he  wrote  a  work  called,  An  Apology  for  the  Holy  Theophobiiis 
by  Calo7iymus  or  Themistius^  in  which  he  also  attacks  Severus, 
whose  devoted  adherent  he  is.  Such  is  falsehood  and  such 
are  the  lovers  of  falsehood.  He  challenges  Themistius  to 
argue  and  shows  that  his  four  arguments,  intended  to  prove 
ignorance  in  Christ,  which  he  deals  with  one  by  one,  involve 
countless  absurdities.  Then  again  Themistius,  to  make  good 
his  defeat,  wrote  a  single  book  against  Theodore.  Theodore 
again  refutes  his  objections  in  three  volumes,  and  sets  forth 
his  own  real  opinion  on  the  subject.  Both  of  them  are 
skilful  writers,  aiming  at  clearness,  combined  with  earnestness 
and  sedateness. 

CIX 

Read  three  volumes  of  the  works  of  Clement,^  presbyter  of 
Alexandria,  entitled  Outlijies,  The  Miscellanies^  The  Tutor. 

^  Who  added  the  words  "One  of  the  Trinity  was  crucified"  to  the 
Trisagion.  According  to  them,  Christ  had  only  one,  and  that  a  tlivine 
nature,  and  therefore  the  divine  nature  suffered  at  the  Crucifixion. 

2  They  taught  that  the  human  soul  of  Christ  was  like  our  own,  even  in 
its  imperfect  knowledge  and  ignorance. 

'  Titus   Flavius   Clemens  {c.    150-213).     A  Platonic   philosopher  who 


200  CLEMENT  OF  ALEXANDRIA 

The  0utli7ies  contain  a  brief  explanation  and  interpretation 
of  certain  passages  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  Although 
in  some  cases  whit  he  says  appears  orthodox,  in  others  he 
indulges  in  impious  and  legendary  fables.  For  he  is  of 
opinion  that  matter  is  eternal  and  that  ideas  are  introduced 
by  certain  fixed  conditions ;  he  also  reduces  the  Son  to 
something  created.  He  talks  prodigious  nonsense  about  the 
transmigration  of  souls  and  the  existence  of  a  number  of 
worlds  before  Adam.  He  endeavours  to  show  that  Eve  came 
from  Adam,  not  as  Holy  Scripture  tells  us,  but  in  an  impious 
and  shameful  manner ;  he  idly  imagines  that  angels  have 
connexion  with  women  and  beget  children ;  that  the  Word 
was  not  incarnate,  but  only  appeared  so.  He  is  further 
convicted  of  monstrous  statements  about  two  Words  of  the 
Father,  the  lesser  of  which  appeared  to  mortals,  or  rather  not 
even  that  one,  for  he  writes  :  "  The  Son  is  called  the  Word, 
of  the  same  name  as  the  Word  of  the  Father,  but  this  is  not 
the  Word  that  became  flesh,  nor  even  the  Word  of  the  Father, 
but  a  certain  power  of  God,  as  it  were  an  efflux  from  the 
Word  itself,  having  become  mind,  pervaded  the  hearts  of  men." 
All  this  he  attempts  to  support  by  passages  of  Scripture.  He 
talks  much  other  blasphemous  nonsense,  either  he  or  some  one 
else  under  his  name.  These  monstrous  blasphemies  are 
conta'ned  in  eight  books,  in  which  he  frequently  discusses  the 
same  points  and  quotes  passages  from  Scripture  promiscuously 
and  confusedly,  like  one  possessed.  The  entire  work  includes 
notes  on  Genesis,  Exodus,  the  Psalms,  St.  Paul's  epistles,  the 
Catholic  epistles,  and  Ecclesiasticus.  Clement  was  a  pupil  of 
Pantaenus,  as  he  himself  says.  Let  this  suffice  for  the 
Outlines. 

CX 

The  Tutor  is  an  elaborate  work  in  three  books,  containing 
rules  for  behaviour  and  conduct.     It    was   preceded    by  and 

embraced  Christianity,  and  succeeded  Pantaenus  as  head  of  the  c  Uechetical 
school  of  Alexandria.  Amongst  his  pupils  were  Origen  and  Alexander, 
bishop  of  Jerusalem.  His  chief  works  are  those  mentioned  here  by 
Photius.  To  these  may  be  added  his  Hortaiory  Address  to  the  Greeks, 
showing  the  superiority  of  Christianity  to  the  heathen  and  other  religions. 
In  consequence  of  the  persecution  of  Severus,  he  fled  to  Palestine,  where 
he  died. 


CLEMENT   OF  ALEXANDRIA  201 

combined  with  another  work,  in  which  he  refutes  the  impiety 
of  the  heathen  These  discourses  have  nothing  in  common 
with  the  Outlines^  since  they  are  entirely  free  from  idle  and 
blasphemous  opinions.  The  style  is  florid,  rising  at  times  to 
an  agreeable  and  moderate  loftiness,  while  the  display  of 
learning  is  not  inappropriate.  In  the  last  book  something  is 
said  about  images. 


CXI 

The  Miscellafiies}  in  eight  books,  contain  an  attack  upon 
heresy  and  the  heathen.  The  material  is  arranged  promis- 
cuously and  the  chapters  are  not  in  order,  the  reason  for 
which  he  himself  gives  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  book  in  the 
following  words:  "Since  these  points  have  been  thoroughly 
discussed,  and  our  ethical  formula  has  been  sketched  summarily 
and  fragmentarily,  as  we  promised,  teachings  calculated  to 
kindle  the  flame  of  true  knowledge  being  scattered  here  and 
there,  so  that  the  discovery  of  the  sacred  mysteries  may  not 
be  easy  to  any  one  of  the  uninitiated,"  and  so  on.  This, 
he  himself  says,  is  the  reason  why  the  subject-matter  is  so 
unsystematically  arranged.  In  an  old  copy  I  have  found  the 
title  of  this  work  not  only  given  as  Misc€l/a?iies,  but  in  full  as 
follows  :  Miscelkwy  of  Gnostic  Notes  in  acco?'dance  with  the  True 
Fhi/osophy,  books  1-8.  The  first  seven  books  have  the  same 
title,  and  are  identical  in  all  the  copies.  The  title  of  the 
eighth,  however,  varies,  as  does  the  subject-matter.  In  some 
copies  it  is  called  JVho  is  the  Rich  Ma?i  that  is  saved?  and 
begins,  "Those  who  .  .  .  laudatory  speeches,"'  etc.  ;  in  others 
it  is  called  The  Miscellafiies^  the  eighth  book,  like  the  other 
seven,  and  begins,  "  But  not  even  the  oldest  of  the  philosophers," 
etc.  The  work  in  some  parts  is  unsound,  but  not  like  the 
Outli?ies,  some  of  whose  statements  it  refutes. 

Clement  is  said  to  have  written  several  other  works,  of  which 
the  following  are  mentioned  by  other  writers  :  On  Easter ;  On 
Fasting;  On  Evil-speaking ;  On  the  Ecclesiastical  Canons,  and 
against  those  who  fclhw  the  Erroneous  Doctrine  of  the  Jews, 
dedicated  to  Alexander,  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  He  flourished 
during  the  reign  of  Severus  and  his  son  Antoninus  at  Rome. 

1  Stromateis  (Sva'/xarets),  bed-coverlets,  "patch-work  quilts." 


202  CLEMENT   OF  ROME 

CXII,  CXIII 

Read  two  volumes  of  the  works  of  Clement,  bishop  of 
Rome.i  One  is  entitled  The  Apostolic  Constitulions  by  Clement, 
containing  the  synodical  canons  ascribed  to  the  assembled 
Apostles.  The  other,  in  the  form  of  a  letter,  is  dedicated  to 
James  the  Lord's  brother  and  contains  what  are  called  The 
Acts  of  the  Apostle  Peter,  His  Conversations  with  Simon  Magus, 
The  Recognition  of  Clement  and  his  Father  and  his  two  Brothers. 
Hence  in  some  copies  it  is  entitled  The  Recognition  of  Clement 
of  Rome.  As  we  have  said,  a  letter  is  prefixed  as  sent  to 
James  the  Lord's  brother,  but  not  always  the  same  nor  from 
the  same  person,  according  to  some  copies  being  sent  by 
Peter  the  apostle,  according  to  others  by  Clement  to  James. 
In  the  first  case,  Peter  would  seem  to  have  compiled  an 
account  of  his  own  acts  and  sent  it  to  James  at  his  request ; 
in  the  second,  Clement  compiled  it  by  command  of  Peter  and 
sent  it  to  James,  after  Peter  had  passed  to  immortal  life.  It 
may  be  conjectured  then  that  there  were  two  editions  of  the 
Acts  of  Peter,  and  that  when  one  in  course  of  time  perished 
that  of  Clement  alone  survived.  For  in  all  the  copies  which 
I  have  seen — by  no  means  a  few — after  those  different  epistles 
and  titles  I  have  unvaryingly  found  the  same  treatise  begin- 
ning, "  I,  Clement,"  etc.  The  work  is  full  of  countless 
absurdities  and  of  blasphemy  against  the  Son  in  accordance 
with  the  Arian  heresy.  The  Constitutions  appear  to  be  liable 
to  censure  on  three  counts  :  clumsy  fiction,  which  it  is  easy 
to  remove ;  the  abusive  charges  against  Deuteronomy,  which 
can  easily  be  met,  and  its  Arianism,  which  can  be  refuted  by 
a  vigorous  attack.  But  the  book  of  the  Acts  of  Peter,  in  its 
distinctness  and  earnestness,  its  purity,  vehemence,  its  general 
linguistic  excellences,  and  its  great  learning,  is  so  superior  to 
the  Constitutions  that,  as  far  as  language  is  concerned,  no 
comparison  between  the  two  works  is  possible. 

It  is  this  Clement  of  whom  St.  Paul  speaks  in  the  Epistle 

^  Lived  during  the  first  century  a.d.  According  to  tradition  he  was 
one  of  the  first  successors  of  St.  Peter  as  bishop  of  Rome.  Numerous 
works,  such  as  the  Homilies  and  Recognitions,  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions, which  are  ascribed  to  him,  are  spurious,  the  only  writing  bearing 
his  name  which  is  admitted  to  be  genuine  being  the  First  Epistle  to  the 
Church  of  Corinth  (the  second  is  spurious).  On  the  whole  question  see 
edition  (1890)  by  Bishop  Lightfoot. 


LUCIUS   CHARINUS  203 

to  the  Philippians,  "With  Clement  also,  and  other  my  fellow- 
labourers,  whose  names  are  written  in  the  book  of  life."  ^ 
He  also  wrote  an  important  letter  to  the  Corinthians,  which 
was  so  highly  thought  of  that  it  was  read  in  public.  A  second 
letter  to  the  same  is  rejected  as  spurious,  as  also  the  lengthy 
discussion,  a  dialogue  between  Peter  and  Ap(p)ion.2  Some 
say  that  Clement  succeeded  Peter  as  bishop  of  Rome,  others 
that  he  was  the  fourth  bishop,  Linus  and  Anacletus  inter- 
vening, and  that  he  died  in  the  third  year  of  Trajan's 
reign. 

CXIV 

Read  a  book  entitled  Circuits  ^  of  the  Apostles,  comprising 
the  Acts  of  Peter,  John,  Andrew,  Thomas,  and  Paul,  the 
author  being  one  Lucius  Charinus,*  as  the  work  itself  shows. 
The  style  is  altogether  uneven  and  strange  ;  the  words  and  con- 
structions, if  sometimes  free  from  carelessness,  are  for  the  most 
part  common  and  hackneyed ;  there  is  no  trace  of  the  smooth 
and  spontaneous  expression,  which  is  the  essential  character- 
istic of  the  language  of  the  Gospels  and  Apostles,  or  of  the 
consequent  natural  grace.  The  contents  also  is  very  silly  and 
self-contradictory.  The  author  asserts  that  the  God  of  the 
Jews,  whom  he  calls  evil,  whose  servant  Simon  Magus  w\as, 
is  one  God,  and  Christ,  whom  he  calls  good,  another. 
Mingling  and  confounding  ail  together,  he  calls  the  same 
both  Father  and  Son.  He  asserts  that  He  never  was  really 
made  man,  but  only  in  appearance ;  that  He  appeared  at 
different  times  in  different  form  to  His  disciples,  now  as  a 
young,  now  as  an  old  man,  and  then  again  as  a  boy,  now 
taller,  now  shorter,  now  very  tall,  so  that  His  head  reached 
nearly  to  heaven.  He  also  invents  much  idle  and  absurd 
nonsense  about  the  Cross,  saying  that  Christ  was  not  crucified, 
but  some  one  in  His  stead,  and  that  therefore  He  could  laugh 
at  those  who  imagined  they  had  crucified  Him.     He  declares 

^  iv.  3.  Clement  being  a  very  common  name,  this  identification  is  by 
no  means  certain. 

■^  Apion,  Alexandrine  grammarian,  commentator  on  Homer,  flouiished 
in  the  middle  of  the  first  century  A.D.  He  was  notorious  for  his  hatred  of 
the  Jews  and  of  Jewish  Christianity. 

3  Or  "Travels." 

*  Also  Leucius,  or  Leontius.  His  date  is  uncertain,  perhaps  in  the 
fifth  century  A.D. 


204  METRODORUS 

lawful  marriages  to  be  illegal  and  that  all  procreation  of 
children  is  evil  and  the  work  of  the  evil  one.  He  talks 
foolishly  about  the  creator  of  demons.  He  tells  monstrous 
tales  of  silly  and  childish  resurrections  of  dead  men  and  oxen 
and  cattle.  In  the  Acts  of  St.  John  he  seems  to  support  the 
opponents  of  images  in  attacking  their  use.  In  a  word,  the 
book  contains  a  vast  amount  of  childish,  incredible,  ill-devised, 
lying,  silly,  self-contradictory,  impious,  and  ungodly  statements, 
so  that  one  would  not  be  far  wrong  in  calling  it  the  source  and 
mother  of  all  heresy. 

cxv 

Read  an  anonymous  work  entitled  A  Disputation  against  the 
Jews  and  those  who  hold  the  same  Heretical  Views,  and  those 
called  Quartodecimans,^  who  do  not  celebrate  the  Holy  Easter 
Feast  in  the  first  month  as  the  Hebrews  do.  The  style  is  concise 
and  free  from  redundancies,  but  somewhat  bombastic.  The 
author  asserts  that  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  did  not  partake 
of  the  regular  Paschal  feast  ^  on  the  holy  fifth  day,  for  that 
day  was  not  laid  down,  but  on  the  following  day ;  that  He 
did  not  even  then  lawfully  eat  what  He  did  eat ;  for  He  ate 
neither  lamb,  nor  unleavened  bread,  and  observed  none  of  the 
practices  which  those  who  keep  Easter  according  to  the  law 
are  in  the  habit  of  observing.  He  asserts  that  He  partook  of 
a  private,  mystic  feast,  from  which  He  gave  bread  and  wine  to 
His  disciples. 

Another  tractate  is  also  included,  by  a  certain  Metrodorus, 
a  list  of  twenty-eight  cycles  of  nineteen  years  for  calculating 
the  holy  Paschal  feast.  This  Metrodorus,  whoever  he  was 
(for  I  have  not  been  able  to  learn  anything  about  him), 
beginning  with  Diocletian,  has  collected  the  Easter  days  for 
533  years,^  according  to  the  received  and  accurate  computation 

^  They  celebrated  Easter  or  the  Paschal  Feast  on  the  day  of  the  Jewish 
Passover  (the  14th  of  Nisan,  the  first  month  of  the  Jewish  year,  corre- 
sponding to  March- April),  whatever  day  of  the  week  it  fell  on.  See  the 
exhaustive   account    in    Hefele,    History   of  Christian    Councils^    i.    298, 

(1871). 

^  The  Jewish  Passover. 

'  i.e.  For  a  cycle  of  532  years  (28  X  19)  and  one  year  more,  when  a 
new  cycle  should  begin.  Metrodorus  possibly  lived  in  the  sixth  or  seventh 
century.  On  this  difficult  subject,  see  article  "Easter"  in  Dictionary 
of  Christian  Antiquities. 


ORIGEN  205 

of  the  fourteenth  day.     For  neither  the  Church  nor  ancient 
tradition  appears  to  have  observed  those  days. 

CXVI 

Read  another  anonymous  work  entitled  A  Third  Volume 
on  the  Holy  Easter  Feast,  in  eight  hooks.  The  style  is  simple 
and  very  clear,  and  contains  many  sensible  ideas.  In 
the  fourth  book  the  author  often  refutes  Metrodorus,  and 
while  supporting  himself  with  evidence  from  the  Scriptures, 
works  into  his  discussion  of  Easter  some  useful  remarks  on 
the  Creation  by  way  of  interpretation.  It  is  dedicated  to  one 
Theodore,  whom  he  calls  his  beloved  brother.  He  was  the 
author  of  other  treatises  on  the  same  subject,  but  this  is  the 
fullest  and  most  useful,  since  he  amply  discusses  everytliing 
bearing  on  the  subject.  He  gives  a  clear  and  detailed  account 
of  leap-year  and  the  intercalary  month,  the  epacts  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  the  nineteen  days  and  the  method  of  finding  them, 
the  months,  the  new  moon,  the  week  and  its  days,  which 
years  are  called  cyclical  and  which  intercalary.  He  also 
discusses  the  twenty-eight  years  of  the  solar  cycle,  the  nine- 
teen years  of  the  lunar  cycle  and  its  fourteenth  day,  the  lunar 
and  solar  months,  the  new  moon  of  the  lunar  and  solar 
month,  the  lunar  month  and  the  exact  month,  the  calcu- 
lation of  the  years  of  the  world.  He  says  that  according 
to  the  other  years  of  ?Iis  advent  our  Lord  and  God  Christ 
partook  of  the  prescribed  Easter  feast,  but  not  on  the  day 
which  was  reported.  This  is  worthy  of  consideration,  since 
Chrysostom  and  the  Church  teach  that  He  partook  of  the 
regular  feast  ^  before  the  mystic  supper. 

CXVII 

Read  an  anonymous  work  defending  Origen  and  his 
abominable  writings,  in  five  volumes.  The  style  is  neither 
clear  nor  pure  and  contains  nothing  deserving  of  mention. 
The  author  brings  forward  on  behalf  of  Origen  and  his  dogmas 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,^  Demetrius,^  Clemens,  and  several 

^  The  Jewish  Passover. 

^  Bishop  of  Alexandria  (247-264),  called  "the  Great,"  a  pupil  of  Origen. 

^  Bishop  of  Alexandria  ( 189-232).  He  was  at  first  on  friendly  terms 
with  Origen,  who  offended  him  by  publicly  expounding  the  Scriptures 
although  unordained  {see  also  Cod.  CXVIII), 


2o6  ORIGEN 

others,  but  chiefly  relies  upon  Pamphilus  the  martyr  and 
Eusebius,  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Palestine.  This  apology  is 
not  a  refutation  of  the  charges  against  Origen  for  the  most 
part,  but  rather  supports  the  accusation,  since  he  is  not 
altogether  free  from  his  blasphemous  opinions.  Thus,  he 
asserts  that  souls  existed  before  bodies,  supporting  this  non- 
sense by  passages  from  the  Scriptures  and  Fathers,  and 
imagines  the  taking  up  of  other  bodies.  In  regard  to  the  Holy 
Trinity,  however,  he  is  orthodox ;  he  asserts  that  Origen  was 
not  guilty  of  error  in  his  opinions  on  the  subject,  but  that  he 
was  opposing  the  Sabellian  ^  heresy,  which  at  that  time  had 
spread  extensively,  and  that,  in  his  endeavour  to  show  that  the 
Trinity  of  Persons  was  quite  clear  and  differed  in  many  ways, 
he  allowed  himself  to  be  carried  away  beyond  what  was  right 
in  the  opposite  direction.  However,  in  regard  to  Origen's 
other  dogmas,  to  which  he  does  not  even  venture  to  give  a 
specious  assent,  and  to  which  he  does  not  think  it  possible  to 
adapt  his  defence,  he  takes  great  trouble  to  prove  that  they  were 
only  intended  as  a  rhetorical  exercise,  or  that  they  were  foisted 
into  his  writings  by  certain  heterodox  persons.  In  proof  of 
this  he  quotes  Origen  himself  as  loudly  protesting,  for  he  says 
that  even  when  he  was  alive  he  discovered  that  such  reckless 
statements  were  made  against  him.  The  counts  on  which  he 
asserts  that  he  was  falsely  accused  are  fifteen  in  number,  which 
he  declares  to  be  mere  slanders,  proving  it  by  quotations  from 
his  writings  in  his  fourth  book,  and  refuting  them  by  the 
evidence  of  others  on  his  behalf  in  the  fifth.  The  counts  are 
as  follows.  He  is  charged  with  teaching  that  prayer  should 
not  be  offered  to  the  Son,  and  that  He  is  not  absolutely 
good ;  that  He  does  not  know  the  P'ather  as  Himself ;  that 
rational  natures  enter  into  the  bodies  of  irrational  beings ; 
that  there  are  migrations  from  one  body  into  another ;  that 
the  soul  of  the  Saviour  was  the  same  as  the  soul  of  Adam ; 
that  there  is  neither  eternal  punishment  nor  resurrection  of 
the  flesh ;  that  magic  is  not  an  evil ;  that  astronomy  is  the 
cause  of  events ;  that  the  Only  Begotten  has  no  share  in  the 

^  A  sect  named  after  Sabellius  (second-third  century  A.  D. ).  While 
denying  that  the  Son  was  subordinate  to  the  Father,  they  denied  His  real 
personality,  and  regarded  the  Trinity  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit  as 
not  real  and  eternal,  but  temporal  and  modalistic  (different  modes  of  the 
manifestations  of  the  Divine  Nature). 


PAMPHILUS  207 

Kingdom ;  that  the  holy  angels  came  into  tlie  world  by  falling 
down  from  heaven,  not  to  render  service  to  others ;  that  the 
f'ather  is  unseen  by  the  Son ;  that  the  Cherubim  are  the  ideas 
of  the  Son ;  that  the  image  of  God,  in  reference  to  him  whose 
image  it  is,  qua  image,  is  untrue.  He  rejects  these  charges, 
as  already  stated,  as  slanders  on  Origen,  and  does  his  utmost 
to  prove  that  he  is  an  orthodox  member  of  the  Church.  But, 
my  dear  sir,  if  any  one  is  shown  to  be  not  altogether  impious, 
this  is  no  reason  why  he  should  escape  punishment  for 
obvious  blasphemies. 

CXVIII 

Read  the  Defence  of  Origen  ^  by  Pamphilus  the  martyr  and 
Eusebius.^  It  is  in  six  books,  five  of  which  were  written  by 
Pamphilus  when  in  prison  in  the  company  of  Eusebius.  The 
sixth  is  the  work  of  Eusebius  alone,  after  the  martyr,  having 
been  deprived  of  life  by  the  sword,  was  removed  to  God  for 
whom  his  soul  longed.  Many  other  distinguished  persons  at 
that  time  also  wrote  in  defence  of  Origen.  It  is  said  that 
Origen,  during  the  persecutions  in  the  reign  of  Severus,  wrote 
to  his  father  Leonides,  urging  him  to  martyrdom,  and  that  he 
ran  nobly  in  the  race  and  received  the  crown.  It  is  added 
that  Origen  himself  made  ready  with  all  zeal  to  enter  into  the 
same  struggle,  but  that  his  mother  checked  his  ardour  in  spite 
of  his  protestations,  as  he  himself  testifies  in  a  letter.  Pam- 
philus the  martyr  and  many  others  who  have  written  an 
accurate  account  of  Origen,  as  gi\  en  by  those  who  knew  him, 
assert  that  he  quitted  this  life  by  a  glorious  martyrdom  at 
Caesarea  during  the  cruel  persecution  of  the  Christians  by  the 
emperor  Decius.^  Others  say  that  he  lived  till  the  times  of 
Gallus  ^  and  Volusianus,  and  that  he  died  at  Tyre  in  the  sixty- 
ninth  year  of  his  age  and  was  buried  there.  This  is  the  truer 
account,  unless  the  letters  supposed  to  have  been  written  by 
him  after  the  Decian  persecution  are  spurious.  They  say  that 
he  studied  and  taught  every  branch  of  knowledge.  He  is  said 
to  have  been  also  called  Adamantius,  because  his  arguments 

^  Book  I  exists  in  a  Latin  version  by  Rufinus. 

2  Emperor  249-251.  He  was  notorious  as  a  relentless  enemy  and  perse- 
cutor of  the  Christians. 

^  Emperor  251-253.  His  son  Volusianus  was  associated  with  him  in 
the  empire. 


2o8  PIERIUS 

were  linked  together  like  chains  of  adamant.  He  attended 
the  lectures  of  Clement,  the  author  of  the  Stromateis,  and 
succeeded  him  as  head  of  the  catechetical  school  at  Alex- 
andria. It  is  said  that  Clement  was  the  pupil  of  Pantaenus 
and  his  successor  as  head  of  his  school,  and  that  Pantaenus 
heard  teachers  who  had  seen  the  apostles,  and  had  even  heard 
them  himself. 

It  is  said  that  the  movement  against  Origen  originated  as 
follows.  Demetrius,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  had  a  high  opinion 
of  Origen  and  admitted  him  to  his  intimate  friendship.  But 
when  Origen  was  about  to  leave  for  Athens  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  bishop,  he  was  ordained  by  Theotecnus,  bishop 
of  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  contrary  to  the  rule  of  the  Church, 
with  the  approval  of  Alexander,  bishop  of  Jerusalem.  This 
incident  changed  the  love  of  Demetrius  to  hate  and  his  praise 
to  blame.  A  synod  of  bishops  and  some  presbyters  was 
summoned  to  condemn  Origen.  According  to  Pamphilus,  it 
was  decided  that  he  must  not  remain  in  Alexandria  or  teach 
there,  but  that  he  should  be  allowed  to  retain  his  priesthood. 
But  Demetrius  and  some  Egyptian  bishops,  with  the  assent  of 
those  who  had  formerly  supported  him,  also  deprived  him  of 
his  sacred  office.  After  he  had  been  banished  from  Alexan- 
dria, Theotecnus,  bishop  of  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  welcomed 
him,  allowed  him  to  live  at  Caesarea,  and  gave  him  permission 
to  preach.  Such  are  the  reasons  which  Pamphilus  gives  for 
the  attack  upon  Origen. 

The  Apology  for  Orige?i  was  composed,  as  we  have  said,  by 
Pamphilus  when  imprisoned  together  with  Eusebius,  and 
addressed  to  those  who  were  condemned  to  the  mines  for  the 
sake  of  Christ,  the  chief  of  whom  was  Patermythius,  who 
shortly  after  the  death  of  Pamphilus  ended  his  life  at  the  stake 
with  others.  Pierius  was  the  teacher  of  Pamphilus,  the  head 
of  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria.  It  is  said  that  he 
suffered  martyrdom  together  with  his  brother  Isidore,  and  that 
a  church  and  houses  of  prayer  were  built  in  his  honour  at 
Alexandria.  The  holy  Pamphilus  was  a  presbyter,  and  is  said 
to  have  copied  most  of  Origen's  commentaries  on  Scripture 
with  his  own  hand. 

CXIX 

Read  a  work  by  Pierius  the  presbyter,  who  is  said  to  have 


PIERIUS  209 

suffered  martyrdom  ^  with  his  brother  Isidore,   and  to  have 
been  the  teacher  of  the  martyr   Pamphilus  in  theology  and 
head  of  the  catechetical  school  at  Alexandria.     The  volume 
contains  twelve  books.     The  style  is  clear  and  brilliant,  and,  so 
to  say,  spontaneous ;  there  is  nothing  elaborate  about  it,  but, 
as  it  were  unpremeditated,  it  flows  along  evenly,  smoothly  and 
gently.     The  work  is  distinguished  by  a  wealth  of  argumenta- 
tion.    It   contains  much  that   is  foreign  to  the  present  insti- 
tutions of  the  Church,  but  is  possibly  in  accordance  with  older 
regulations.     In  regard  to  the  Father  and  the  Son  his  state- 
ments are  orthodox,  except  that  he  asserts  that  there  are  two 
substances  and    two  natures,  using  these  terms  (as    is    clear 
from  what  follows  and  precedes  the  passage)  in  the  sense  of 
hypostasis,  not  in  the  sense  given  by  the  adherents  of  Arius. 
But   in   regard  to  the  Holy  Ghost   his  views   are   dangerous 
and  impious  ;   for  he  declares  that  His  glory  was  less  than 
that  of  the  Father  and  the  Son.     There  is  a  passage  in  the 
treatise  entitled  On  Si.  Luke's  Gospel,  from  which  it  can   be 
shown  that  the  honour  and    dishonour  of  the  image  is  the 
honour  and    dishonour   of  the   prototype.     It    is    hinted,    in 
agreement  w4th  Origen's  absurd  idea,  that  souls  have  a  pre- 
existence.     In  his  work  on  Easter  and  the  homily  upon  the 
prophet  Hosea,  the  author  discusses  the  Cherubim  made  by 
Moses  and  Jacob's  pillar  ;  he  admits  that  they  were  niade,  but 
talks  nonsense  about  their  being  providentially  granted,  as  if 
they  were  nothing,  or  something  else,  or  as  if  what  was  made 
was  something  else  ;  for  he  says  that  they  did  not  exhibit  any 
sort  of  form,  but  absurdly  asserts  that  they  only  had  wings  of  a 
kind. 

This  Pierius  was  presbyter  of  the  Church  of  Alexandria, 
when  Theonas  was  bishop,  and  Carus  and  Diocletian  were 
emperors  of  Rome.  It  is  said  that  he  was  so  distinguished  for 
love  of  work  and  learning,  and  that  his  discourses  to  the 
people  w^ere  so  agreeable  and  instructive,  that  he  was  called 
"  the  young  Origen,"  since  Origen  at  that  time  enjoyed  a  very 
high  reputation.  They  say  that  he  was  well  versed  in  dialectic 
and  rhetoric,  and  that  he  voluntarily  practised  temperance  and 
poverty.  According  to  some,  he  suffered  martyrdom ; 
according  to  others,  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  at  Rome  after 
the  time  of  the  persecution. 

*  During  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  (303). 
VOL.  I.  ^ 


210  IRENAEUS 

CXX 

Read  the  work  of  Irenaeus,  bishop  of  Lyons,^  entitled  the 
Refutation  and  Subversion  of  Knowledge  falsely  so  called  or 
Against  Heresies,  in  five  books.  The  first,  in  which  Valen- 
tinus  and  his  impious  heresy  are  discussed,  begins  as  far  back 
as  Simon  Magus  ^  and  goes  down  to  Tatian,^  who,  at  first  a 
disciple  of  Justin  Martyr,*  afterwards  fell  headlong  into  heresy. 
It  also  deals  with  those  who  are  properly  called  Gnostics  and 
the  Cainites,^  setting  forth  their  abominable  doctrines.  Such 
is  the  contents  of  the  first  book.  In  the  second  the  impious 
dogmas  of  the  heretics  are  refuted.  The  third  quotes  all  kinds 
of  testimony  from  the  Scriptures  against  them.  The  fourth 
answers  certain  difficulties  put  forward  by  the  heretics.  The. 
fifth  shows  that  all  that  was  said  and  done  by  the  Lord  in  the 
form  of  parables,  derived  both  from  His  saving  doctrine  and 
from  the  apostolic  epistles,  is  suited  for  the  refutation  of  the 
claptrap  of  the  heretics, 

St.  Irenaeus  is  said  to  have  been  the  author  of  many  other 
works  of  various  kinds  including  letters,  in  some  of  which  it 
should  be  observed  that  the  exact  truth  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church  appears  to  be  falsified  by  spurious  arguments. 

It  is  said  that  he  was  a  pupil  of  the  holy  martyr  Polycarp,^ 
bishop  of  Smyrna,  and  was  presbyter  to  Pothinus,  whom  he 

^  c.  120-140  to  202,  bishop  of  Lyons  177.  He  was  born  in  Asia  Minor, 
near  Smyrna,  and  removed  to  Rome  about  155.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
martyred  under  Severus,  but  this  is  not  regarded  as  certain.  He  was  an 
ardent  opponent  of  the  Valentinian  Gnostics,  and  earnestly  endeavoured  to 
prevent  a  quarrel  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  Churches  on  the  question 
of  the  date  of  Easter.  His  great  work  only  exists  in  a  barbarous  Latin 
version,  though  parts  of  the  original  can  be  re-constructed  from  quotations 
in  later  writers. 

^  Simon  the  Magician,  flourished  about  the  year  A.D.  37,  when  he  gained 
great  influence  in  Samaria  by  his  witchcraft  {see  Acts  viii.  9-24). 

^  An  Assyrian,  student  of  Greek  philosophy,  who  became  converted  to 
Christianity  at  Rome  about  150  by  reading  the  Bible.  A  Christian 
apologist,  he  later  adopted  Gnostic  views.  He  retired  to  Mesopotamia  and 
is  supposed  to  have  died  at  Edessa,  c.  180.  In  addition  to  an  Apology  for 
Christianity,  he  was  the  author  of  a  Diatessaron,  a  sort  of  harmony  of 
the  Gospels. 

^  c.  103-164.  Born  in  Palestine,  Greek  philosopher  and  convert  to 
Christianity.  He  is  said  to  have  been  scourged  and  beheaded  for  refusing 
to  offer  sacrifice  to  the  pagan  divinities. 

^  Gnostic  sect  of  the  second  century,  followers  of  Carpocrates  of 
Alexandria.  ^  Martyr  (r.  155)  under  Marcus  Aurelius. 


HIPPOLYTUS  ROM  ANUS  211 

succeeded  in  the  bishopric  of  Lyons.  At  that  time  Victor  was 
pope  of  Rome,  whom  Irenaeus  frequently  exhorted  by  letter 
not  to  excommunicate  any  members  of  the  Church  on  account 
of  a  disagreement  about  Easter. 

CXXI 

Read  the  tractate  of  Hippolytus/  the  pupil  of  Irenaeus, 
entitled  Against  the  Thirty-two  Heresies.  It  begins  with  the 
Dositheans,^  and  goes  down  to  the  heresies  of  Noetus  ^  and  the 
Noetians,  which  he  says  were  refuted  by  Irenaeus  in  his  lectures, 
of  which  the  present  work  is  a  synopsis.  The  style  is  clear, 
somewhat  severe  and  free  from  redundancies,  although  it 
exhibits  no  tendency  to  atticism.  Some  of  the  statements  are 
inaccurate,  for  instance,  that  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  not 
the  work  of  the  apostle  Paul.  Hippolytus  is  said  to  have 
addressed  the  people  after  the  manner  of  Origen,  with  whom 
he  was  very  intimate  and  whose  writings  he  so  much  admired 
that  he  urged  him  to  write  a  commentary  on  the  Bible,  for 
which  purpose  he  supplied,  at  his  own  expense,  seven  short- 
hand writers  and  the  same  number  of  calligraphists.  Having 
rendered  this  service,  he  persistently  demanded  the  work, 
whence  Origen,  in  one  of  his  letters,  calls  him  a  "  hustler." 
He  is  said  to  have  written  a  large  number  of  other  works. 

CXXI  I 

Read  the  Pauaria  of  the  most  holy  bishop  Epiphanlus,'* 
against  eighty  heresies,  in  three  volumes  containing  seven 
books.      It   begins    with    barbarism    and    goes    down   to    the 

^  Flourished  during  the  third  century.  lie  was  a  pupil  of  Irenaeus  and 
an  active  opponent  of  the  Gnostics.  He  was  a  presbyter  of  Rome,  and 
became  anti-bishop  in  opposition  to  Calixtus  (Callistus),  an  adherent  of 
Monarchianism  (denial  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity).  The  treatise 
Agahisi  Heresies  was  first  discovered  in  a  convent  on  Mount  Athos  in 
1S42. 

2  A  Jewish  sect,  so  called  from  Dositheus  of  Samaria  (first  century  a. d.), 
who  killed  himself  by  fasting.  He  insisted  on  a  rigorous  observance  of  the 
Sabbath. 

^  Died  about  A.D.  200,  born  at  Smyrna  or  Ephesus.  According  to  him 
"  Christ  was  the  Father,  and  the  Father  was  born,  suffered,  and  died." 

*  c.  316-403,  born  near  Eleutheropolis  in  Palestine,  bishop  of  Constantia 
(Salamis)  in  Cyprus.  He  was  a  vigorous  opponent  of  Origen  and  Chry- 
sostom.  Pauaria  is  the  Latin  equivalent  of  the  Greek  'ApT0(p6pia  (bread- 
baskets). 


212  JUSTIN  MARTYR 

Messalians.^  The  author  writes  more  fully  and  effectually 
against  heretics  than  any  of  his  predecessors,  since  he  has  not 
omitted  any  useful  argument  of  theirs,  and  has  added  any 
others  that  he  himself  could  find.  His  style  is  poor,  like  that 
of  one  who  is  unfamiliar  with  Attic  elegance.  He  is  chiefly 
weak  in  his  conflicts  with  impious  heresies ;  sometimes,  how- 
ever, he  is  excellent  in  attack,  although  the  character  of  his 
language  and  composition  is  by  no  means  improved  at  the 
same  time. 

cxxni 

Read  the  same  author's  Ancoratus,^  a  sort  of  synopsis  of  the 
Pan  an' a. 

CXXIV 

Read  the  same  author's  treatise  On  Weights  and  Measures. 

cxxv 

Read  Justin  Martyr's  Apology  for  the  Christians,  written 
against  both  Jews  and  gentiles  ;  also  a  treatise  Against  the  First 
and  Second  Books  of  the  Physics,  or  against  form,  matter,  and 
privation,  a  collection  of  dialectical,  vigorous,  and  useful  argu- 
ments; also.  Against  the  Fifth  Essence  and  Eternal  Motion,  which 
Aristotle  has  created  by  the  aid  of  his  clever  reasoning,  and, 
finally.  Summary  Solutions  of  Doubts  Unfavourable  to  Christianity. 

He  is  thoroughly  versed  in  our  own  and  especially  in  heathen 
philosophy,  overflowing  with  learning  of  all  kinds  and  a  wealth 
of  historical  knowledge ;  but  he  has  not  endeavoured  to  colour 
the  natural  beauty  of  his  philosophy  by  rhetorical  arts.  Where- 
fore his  diction,  in  other  respects  vigorous  and  preserving  the 
scientific  style,  is  not  seasoned  with  rhetorical  condiments,  nor 
does  it  attract  the  crowd  of  hearers  by  seductive  and  alluring 
language.  He  wrote  four  discourses  against  the  heathen— the 
first  dedicated  to  Antoninus  Pius,  his  sons,  and  the  senate  ;  the 
second  to  his  successors.  The  third  discusses  the  nature  of 
demons.  The  fourth  book,  also  written  against  the  heathen,  is 
called  a  Refutation.  He  also  wrote  On  the  Sole  Government  of 
God,  Psaltes,  some  works  Against  Marcion  which  should  be 
read,  and  a  useful  treatise  entitled  Against  all  Heresies. 

1  See  Cod.  LI  I. 

^  Rather  Ancyj'oins    (Gk.  'A7;cvpwTos),    "secured  by  an   anchor,"  the 
anchor  of  faith   amidst  the  storms  of  heresy. 


CLEMENT   OF  ROME  213 

He  was  the  son  of  Priscus  (grandson)  of  Bacchius,  and  was 
a  native  of  Neapolis  in  the  province  of  Palestine.  He  resided 
for  some  time  at  Rome,  where  his  discourses,  manner  of  life, 
and  dress  showed  the  true  philosopher.  As  he  was  a  fervent 
lover  of  piety,  his  life  and  religion  incurred  the  hostility  of 
a  certain  Crescens  of  the  sect  of  the  Cynics.  Being  falsely 
accused  by  him,  he  patiently  endured  his  persecution  in  a 
manner  worthy  of  his  whole  career.  Making  it  an  excuse  for 
martyrdom,  he  nobly  and  joyfully  died  for  Christ. 

CXXVI 

Read  the  little  book  containing  Clement's  two  Epistles  to  the 
Corinthians.  The  first  accuses  them  of  having  disturbed  the 
peace  and  harmony  proper  to  civil  life  by  sedition,  disturb- 
ance, and  schism,  and  exhorts  them  to  desist  from  such  evil 
ways.  The  style  is  simple  and  clear,  in  its  absence  of  elabora- 
tion approaching  that  of  ecclesiastical  writers.  The  author, 
however,  deserves  censure  for  putting  certain  worlds  beyond 
the  ocean,  for  using  the  phoenix  as  an  incontrovertible  argu- 
ment, for  calling  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  chief  priest  and  presi- 
dent, not  even  using  the  loftier  terms  that  befit  God,  although 
he  nowhere  openly  blasphemes  Him.  The  second  letter, 
containing  advice  and  exhortation  to  a  better  life,  at  the 
beginning  proclaims  Christ  as  God,  although  certain  foreign 
expressions,  from  which  even  the  first  letter  is  not  altogether 
free,  are  introduced  as  if  from  Holy  Writ.  Certain  passages 
are  strangely  interpreted.  The  sentiments  are  somewhat  poor 
and  at  times  inconsistent. 

In  the  same  little  work  also  read  Polycarp's  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians,  full  of  good  advice,  combined  with  clearness  and 
simplicity,  after  the  ecclesiastical  method  of  interpretation. 
The  author  also  says  that  he  sent  the  letters  of  the  God- 
inspired  Ignatius  to  them,  asking  to  be  informed  if  they  had 
heard  anything  of  him. 

CXXVII 

Read  the  Life  of  Constantine  the  Great  Emperor  by  Eusebius 
Pamphili,  a  eulogy  in  four  books.  It  contains  the  whole 
manner  of  life  of  the  man,  and  describes  all  those  acts  of  his 
that  have  to  do  with  ecclesiastical  history,  from  his  earliest 
years  till  the  day  when  he  departed  this  life,  at  the  age  of 


214  EUSEBIUS   OF  CAESAREA 

sixty-four.  Even  here  the  author  preserves  his  characteristic 
style,  except  that  his  language  is  obliged  to  be  somewhat  more 
brilliant,  and  words  are  inserted  here  and  there  that  are  more 
flowery  than  usual ;  he  does  not,  however,  exhibit  much  charm 
and  grace  in  explanation,  which  is  also  a  defect  of  his  other 
works.  A  large  number  of  passages  from  all  the  ten  books  of 
his  Ecclesiastical  History  are  scattered  over  this  work  in  four 
books.  He  says  that  the  great  Constantine  was  also  himself 
baptized  in  Nicomedia,  having  put  off  his  baptism  till  that  time 
since  he  desired  to  receive  it  in  the  waters  of  Jordan.  He 
does  not  state  definitely  who  baptized  him.  As  to  the  Arian 
heresy,  he  does  not  make  it  clear  whether  he  still  adhered 
to  that  doctrine  or  whether  he  had  changed,  nor  does  he  state 
w^hether  Arius's  views  were  right  or  wrong,  although  he  ought 
to  have  mentioned  this,  seeing  that  a  great  part  of  the  deeds 
of  Constantine  has  to  do  with  the  synod,  which  again  claims  a 
detailed  account  of  them.  But  he  mentions  that  a  "dispute" 
(as  he  calls  the  heresy,  to  conceal  its  real  nature)  arose  between 
Arius  and  Alexander,  and  that  the  pious  emperor  was  very 
grieved  at  the  "  dispute,"  and  strove,  by  letters  and  through 
Hosius,  bishop  of  Cordova,  to  induce  the  disputants  to 
abandon  mutual  strife  and  such  questions,  and  to  restore 
friendship  and  harmony  amongst  them  ;  that,  being  unable 
to  persuade  them,  he  called  together  a  synod  from  all  part?, 
and  so  put  an  end  to  the  strife  that  had  broken  out,  and  made 
peace.  His  account,  however,  is  neither  accurate  nor  clear. 
Wherefore,  as  if  ashamed  and  unwiUing  to  make  public  the 
facts  concerning  Arius  and  the  decree  of  the  synod  against 
him  or  the  just  punishment  of  his  companions  in  impiety  who 
were  cast  out  wdth  him,  he  says  nothing  about  this.  He  does 
not  even  mention  the  just  punishment  of  Arius  ^  inflicted  by 
heaven  and  seen  by  every  eye.  He  brings  none  of  these  things 
to  the  light,  and  says  little  about  the  synod  and  its  pro- 
ceedings. For  this  reason,  when  about  to  speak  of  the  divine 
Eustathius,^  he  does  not  even  mention  his  name,  nor  the 
audacious  and  successful  intrigues  against  him.  Attributing 
these  also  to  sedition  and  tumult,  he  again  refers  to  the  calm- 
ness of  the  bishops  who  had  assembled  at  Antioch  as  the 
result  of  the  emperor's  zeal  and  co-operation  and  changed 
sedition  and  tumult  into  peace.     Similarly,  where  he  speaks 

^  See  p.  154.  ^  See  p.  153,  note  *'. 


LUCIAN  215 

of  the  intrigues  against  the  much-tried  Athanasius,  in  his  desire 
to  include  these  things  in  his  history,  he  says  that  Alexandria 
was  again  filled  with  sedition  and  disturbance,  which  were 
calmed  by  the  presence  of  the  bishops,  supported  by  the 
emperor.  But  he  does  not  make  it  clear  who  started  the 
sedition,  nor  its  nature,  nor  how  it  was  put  down.  He  pre- 
serves almost  the  same  method  of  concealment  in  his  narrative 
of  the  quarrels  of  the  bishops  about  dogma  or  their  disagree- 
ments in  other  matters. 

CXXVIII 

Read  Lucian's  ^  declamation  On  Phalaris  and  his  various 
Dialogues  of  the  Dead  and  Courtesans,  and  other  works  on 
different  subjects,  in  nearly  all  of  which  he  ridicules  the  ideas 
of  the  heathen.  Thus  he  attacks  their  silly  errors  in  the 
invention  of  gods ;  their  brutal  and  ungovernable  passions  and 
lack  of  restraint ;  the  monstrous  fancies  and  fictions  of  their 
poets ;  their  consequent  errors  in  statesmanship ;  the  irregular 
course  and  changes  and  chances  of  their  life;  the  boastful 
behaviour  of  the  philosophers,  full  of  nothing  but  pretence 
and  idle  opinions ;  in  a  word,  his  aim  is,  as  we  have  said,  to 
hold  up  the  heathen  to  ridicule  in  prose.  He  seems  to  be 
one  of  those  persons  who  regard  nothing  seriously  ;  ridiculing 
and  mocking  at  tlie  opinions  of  others,  he  does  not  state  what 
opinions  he  himself  holds,  unless  we  may  say  that  his  opinion 
is  that  one  can  know  nothing  for  certain.  His  style  is  excellent, 
his  diction  clear,  suitable  and  expressive ;  he  shows  a  special 
liking  for  distinctness  and  purity  united  with  brilliancy  and 
appropriate  dignity.  His  composition  is  so  well  fitted  together 
that  the  reader  does  not  seem  to  be  reading  prose,  but  an 
agreeable  song,  whose  nature  is  not  too  obtrusive,  seems  to 
drop  into  the  listener's  ears.  In  a  word,  as  already  said,  his 
style  is  charming,  but  not  in  keeping  with  the  subjects  which 
he  himself  has  determined  to  ridicule.  That  he  was  one  of 
those  who  held  that  nothing  could  be  known  for  certain  is 
shown  by  the  following  inscription  in  the  work : 

^  The  well-known  sophist  and  humorous  writer  {c.  A.D.  125-180).  He 
was  a  native  of  Samosata  in  Syria,  and,  after  a  wandering  life,  settled  down 
in  Athens,  whence  he  removed  to  Egypt,  where  he  died.  His  True  History 
was  the  original  of  works  like  the  Gulliver's  Travels  of  Swift,  with  whom 
and  with  Voltaire  he  has  much  in  common, 


2i6  LUCIUS   OF   PATRAE 

"  I,  Lucian,  wrote  this,  I  who  am  skilled  in  what  is  old  and  foolish  ; 
For  what  men  think  wise  is  foolish. 
So  then  nothing  that  the  mind  of  man  can  conceive  is  certain  ; 
What  you  admire,  seems  ridiculous  to  others." 

CXXIX 

Read  the  various  stories  of  Metamorphoses  ^  by  Lucius  of 
Patrae.  The  style  is  clear,  pure,  and  agreeable ;  avoiding 
innovations  in  language,  the  author  carries  to  excess  his  tales 
of  marvels,  so  that  he  may  be  called  a  second  Lucian.  The 
first  two  books  are  almost  translations  from  Lucian's  Lucius 
or  The  Ass^  unless  Lucian  borrowed  from  Lucius,  which,  if 
I  may  hazard  the  conjecture,  is  the  case,  although  I  have  not 
been  able  to  find  out  for  certain  which  wrote  first.  For  it 
seems  that  Lucian,  having  cut  down  the  more  copious  work 
of  Lucius  and  removed  all  that  seemed  unsuitable  for  his 
purpose,  combined  what  was  left  into  a  single  composition, 
in  which  the  words  and  arrangement  of  the  original  were  pre- 
served, and  gave  the  title  of  Lucius  or  The  Ass  to  what  he 
had  borrowed.  Both  works  are  full  of  mythical  fictions  and 
disgraceful  indecency.  The  only  difference  is  that  Lucian,  as 
in  all  his  other  writings,  ridicules  and  scoffs  at  heathenish 
superstitions,  whereas  Lucius,  taking  quite  seriously  and 
believing  the  transformations  of  men  into  other  men  and 
brutes,  and  of  brutes  into  men,  and  all  the  idle  talk  and  non- 
sense of  ancient  fables,  set  them  down  in  writing  and  worked 
them  up  into  a  story. 

cxxx 

Read  a  work  by  Damascius^  in  four  books,  the  first  of 
which,  in  352  chapters,  is  entitled,  On  Incredible  Events ;  the 
second,  in  52  chapters,  On  Incredible  Stories  of  Demons ;  the 
third,  in  63  chapters.  On  Incredible  Stories  of  Souls  that  have 
appeared  after  Death;  the  fourth,  in  105  chapters,  On  Incredible 
Natures.  They  all  contain  impossible,  incredible,  and  clumsily 
invented    tales    of  wonderful   things,   foolish   and   worthy   of 

^  Both  the  AovKLos  il''Ouos  (Lucius  or  the  Ass)  of  Lucian  and  the  Meta- 
morphoses of  Apuleius  go  back  to  one  Greek  original,  here  called  Lucius  of 
Patrae  in  Achaea  (mod.  Patras). 

2  Neo-Platonist  philosopher  of  Damascus,  flourished  in  the  fiftli-sixth 
century  a.d.  He  taught  philosophy  and  rhetoric  in  Alexandria  and  Athens. 
His  treatise  Doubts  and  Solutions  in  regard  to  First  Principles  is  extant. 


AMYNTIANUS  217 

the  impious  and  godless  Damascius,  who,  while  the  light  of 
the  true  religion  spread  over  the  world,  remained  steeped 
in  the  thick  darkness  of  idolatry.  The  style  is  concise,  clear, 
and  agreeable,  which  is  not  usually  the  case  in  such  stories. 

CXXXI 

Read  a  work  On  Alexander  by  Amyntianus,  dedicated  to 
the  emperor  Marcus. ^  The  author  claims  to  describe  the 
deeds  of  Alexander  in  a  befitting  manner,  but  the  course  of 
his  narrative  proves  him  to  be  too  ready  and  audacious  in  his 
promises,  but  backward  and  timid  in  performance.  For  he 
is  far  inferior  to  those  who  have  previously  written  of  Alex- 
ander, and  his  style,  although  clear,  is  characterized  by  lack 
of  vigour  and  energy,  and  much  that  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  is  omitted. 

Amongst  other  works  Amyntianus  also  wrote  parallel  lives 
of  Dionysius  and  Domitian,  and  of  Philip  of  Macedon  and 
Augustus,  both  in  two  books.  A  life  of  Olympias,  the  mother 
of  Alexander,  is  also  attributed  to  him. 

CXXXII-CXXXV 

Read  various  Declamations  by  Palladius  -  the  sophist, 
Aphthonius,^  Eusebius  *  the  sophist,  and  Maximus  the  sophist 
of  Alexandria.  Palladius  is  far  superior  to  the  others  in 
excellence  of  style. 

CXXXVI 

Read  the  Thesauri  of  Cyril. ^  The  work  is  dialectical,  and 
attacks  the  madness  of  Arius  and  Eunomius  with  vigorous 
and  manifold  arguments.  By  logical  methods  he  skilfully 
refutes  their  folly  and  by  combining  and  introducing  evidence 
from  Holy  Writ  he  completely  exposes  the  unsoundness  of 
their  doctrine.     He  quotes  the  simple  evidence  from  Scripture, 

^  Marcus  Aurelius. 

2  Of  Methone,  lived  in  the  time  of  Constantine. 

^  Of  Antioch  (fourth  century  A.  D.).  Pupil  of  Libanius  and  author  of  an 
extant  Pi-ogymnasuiata  (literary  exercises). 

*  There  were  two  sophists  of  this  name,  one  of  Antioch,  the  other  of 
Alexandria.     Nothing  more  is  known  of  them,  nor  of  Maximus. 

^  Of  Alexandria  {see  Cod.  XLIX).  The  work  deals  with  "the  holy  and 
consubstantial  Trinity." 


2i8  EUNOMIUS 

thus  everywhere  closing  their  insolent  mouths  so  that  they 
are  unable  to  answer.  This  work  is  the  clearest  of  all  Cyril's 
works,  especially  to  those  who  are  able  to  grasp  the  significance 
of  his  logical  methods. 

CXXXVII 

Read  a  little  work  by  Eunomius,^  entitled  .  .  .  ,  which  is 
a  clear  proof  of  his  impiety.  It  was  much  admired  by  his 
adherents,  and  the  greatest  efforts  were  made  to  keep  it  secret 
and  prevent  its  becoming  known  to  others  ;  but  the  great  Basil 
managed  to  secure  it,  and  by  his  brilliancy  and  vigour  and 
the  force  and  excellence  of  his  arguments  overthrew  and  refuted 
it.  It  was  as  if  he  had  taken  a  Babylonian  child  and  dashed 
it  against  the  granite  rock  of  truth,  showing  that  what  was  once 
so  much  admired  was  a  mere  carcase  and  only  deserving  of 
ridicule. 

CXXXVIII 

Read  a  work  by  the  same  impious  man  in  three  books, 
which  is,  as  it  were,  a  confutation  of  the  absurdities  shown 
by  St.  Basil  to  be  contained  in  his  blasphemous  writings.  It 
is  said  that  while  he  was  in  labour  with  this  work  he  spent 
several  Olympiads  ^  shut  up  in  his  chamber,  and  only  after 
an  interval  of  several  years  brought  forth  the  abortion  and 
evil  monstrosity  with  which  he  had  become  pregnant  by  secret 
intercourse.  Not  without  difficulty  he  reared  and  exhibited 
the  wretched  offspring  to  his  fellow-initiates,  being  especially 
afraid  lest  it  might  somehow  fall  into  the  hands  of  Basil  and 
be  torn  in  pieces  before  it  obtained  consistency,  and  might 
prematurely  wither  away  and  perish  before  it  came  to  maturity. 
Wherefore,  carefully  and,  like  another  Kronos^  in  the  fable 
who  swallowed  his  offspring,  he  hid  and  concealed  it  as  long 

^  Of  Cappadocia,  head  of  an  extreme  Arian  sect.  He  was  bishop  of 
Cyzicus,  but  was  deposed  and  exiled,  and  died  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century.  He  asserted  that  the  Son  of  God  was  God  only  in  name,  and 
that  He  was  united  to  humanity  not  in  substance,  but  only  by  His  virtue 
and  operations. 

2  Periods  of  four  years. 

^  Saturn.  He  had  heard  that  he  would  be  killed  by  one  of  his  sons, 
and  accordingly  devoured  his  children  as  soon  as  they  were  born.  Zeus, 
Poseidon  and  Pluto  were  saved,  their  mother  Rhea  having  substituted 
stones  for  them,  which  Saturn  swallowed  with  equal  avidity. 


ATHANASIUS  219 

as  Basil's  mortal  life  lasted  and  inspired  him  with  dread.  But 
after  that  saint  had  left  his  temporary  habitation  and  had 
ascended  to  his  own  inheritance  in  heaven,  being  relieved  of 
this  great  apprehension,  although  late  in  the  day,  Eunomius 
ventured  to  bring  out  the  work,  not  for  the  eyes  of  the  general 
public,  but  for  his  ow^n  friends.  Theodore,  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
and  Sophronius  (whom  I  have  already  mentioned)  came  across 
the  work,  lashed  it  unmercifully  like  his  earlier  one  and  flung 
it  back  in  the  face  of  its  parent,  a  corpse  and  smelling  of  all 
uncleanness.  Thus  he  paid  the  penalty  of  impiety.  The  style 
is  marked  by  such  absence  of  grace  and  charm  that  the  author 
does  not  seem  to  have  any  idea  of  the  existence  of  such  things. 
He  displays  prodigious  ostentation  and  produces  discordant 
sounds  by  the  heaping  up  of  consonants,  and  by  the  use  of 
words,  difficult  to  pronounce  and  containing  several  consonants, 
in  a  poetical,  or,  to  speak  more  accurately,  dithyrambic  style. 
The  composition  is  forced,  compressed,  and  harsh,  so  that  the 
reader  of  his  works  is  obliged  to  beat  the  air  vehemently  with 
his  lips,  if  he  wishes  to  utter  clearly  words  which  the  author, 
by  excessive  roughening,  compressing  and  condensing,  inter- 
polating and  mutilating,  has  wath  difficulty  composed.  His 
periods  are  sometimes  spun  out  to  an  inordinate  length,  and 
the  entire  work  is  pervaded  by  obscurity  and  w^ant  of  clearness, 
his  object  being  to  persuade  the  majority  by  the  force  of  his 
eloquence  that  he  goes  beyond  their  capacity,  and  also  to  cover 
up  the  weakness  of  his  thoughts  (which  is  by  no  means  incon- 
siderable) by  this  very  obscurity  and  unintelligibility,  and  to 
conceal  the  poverty  of  his  ideas.  He  seems  to  have  great  faith 
in  logical  arguments,  attacking  others  on  this  count  and  showing 
great  eagerness  to  employ  them  himself,  although,  since  he  took 
up  the  study  late  and  did  not  acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  he  can  often  be  convicted  of  errors  in  reasoning. 

Also  read  his  Letters  to  different  people,  40  in  number. 
While  in  these  he  affects  the  same  subtlety  of  form,  since  he 
is  ignorant  of  the  laws  of  the  epistolary  style  and  has  had  no 
practice  in  them,  he  has  been  publicly  branded  and  exposed. 

CXXXIX 

Read  the  Commentary  on  Ecclesiastes  and  the  Song  of  Songs 
by  the  great  Athanasius.     The  style  is  clear,  like  that  of  all 


220  BASIL  THE   GREAT 

his  writings.  But  neither  this  nor  any  other  of  his  works  with 
which  I  am  acquainted  approaches  the  grace  and  beauty  of 
the  letters  containing  an  apology  for  his  flight  and  an  account 
of  his  exile. 

CXL 

Read  the  same  holy  man's  Against  Arius  and  his  Doctrines, 
in  five  books.  The  style,  as  in  all  his  works,  is  clear,  free 
from  redundancies  and  simple,  but  vehement  and  deep,  and 
the  arguments,  of  which  he  has  an  abundant  store,  are  extremely 
forceful.  He  uses  logical  arguments,  not  with  the  very  words 
taken  straight  from  them,  after  the  fashion  of  children  and 
those  whose  knowledge  of  a  subject  is  recent,  who  are  always 
eager  to  make  a  childish  display,  but  in  the  imposing  and 
dignified  manner  of  a  philosopher,  using  simple  ideas  and 
these  well  set  forth.  He  also  strongly  fortifies  himself  with 
evidence  and  proofs  from  Holy  V\^rit.  In  a  word,  this  work 
alone  is  a  complete  refutation  of  Arianism.  If  any  one  were 
to  say  that  Gregory  the  theologian  and  the  holy  Basil  drew 
from  it  as  from  a  fountain  the  limpid  and  beautiful  stream  of 
their  own  works  written  against  the  same  heresy,  he  would  not 
be  far  wrong. 

CXLI 

Read  the  work  of  St.  Basil  on  The  Six  Days'  Work.  He  is 
admirable  in  all  his  writings.  More  than  any  one  else  he  knows 
how  to  use  a  style  that  is  pure,  distinct,  suitable,  and,  in 
general,  political  and  panegyrical ;  in  arrangement  and  purity 
of  sentiment  he  is  second  to  none.  He  is  fond  of  persuasiveness 
and  sweetness  and  brilliancy,  his  words  flow  on  like  a  stream 
gushing  forth  spontaneously  from  a  spring.  He  employs 
probability  to  such  an  extent,  that  if  any  one  were  to  take  his 
discourses  as  a  model  of  political  language,  and  practise  himself 
in  them,  provided  he  had  some  acquaintance  with  the  rules 
connected  with  it,  I  do  not  think  he  would  need  to  consult  any 
other  author,  not  even  Plato  nor  Demosthenes,  whom  the 
ancients  recommend  those  to  study  who  desire  to  become 
masters  of  the  political  and  panegyrical  style. 

CXLII 

Read  also  his  Moral  Discourses,  especially  distinguished  by 
the  excellence  of  the  language  mentioned  above. 


HELLADIUS  221 

CXLIII 

Read  also  his  Letters,  the  canonical  and  those  written  to 
various  people.  They  clearly  show  the  admirable  nature  of 
the  man's  character,  and  any  one  might  take  them  as  a  model 
of  letter-writing,  if  he  has  no  other. 

CXLIV 

Read  also  his  Ascetica  or  Regulations  for  a  Monastic  Life. 
He  who  follows  these  rules  will  inherit  a  heavenly  kingdom. 
In  this  work,  contrary  to  his  usual  custom,  he  makes  much  use 
of  headings  in  many  chapters. 

CXLV 

Read  the  Lexicon  of  Helladius,^  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order.  It  is  the  most  comprehensive  of  the  lexicons  that  I 
know,  the  collection  consisting  not  only  of  words,  but  also 
of  some  most  agreeable  short  clauses,  which  frequently  become 
perfect  members.^  The  words  are  for  the  most  part  taken  from 
prose  writers,  not  from  the  poets,  like  the  compilation  of 
Diogenianus ;  ^  the  alphabetical  order  is  not  preserved  in  all 
the  syllables,  but  only  in  the  first.  The  collection  is  very  large, 
so  that  the  whole  could  not  be  comprised  in  five  fair-sized 
volumes.  Our  copy  is  in  seven.  It  is  a  useful  work  for  those 
who  are  engaged  in  literary  work  and  are  desirous  of  acquiring 
a  variety  of  knowledge.  For  it  contains  quotations  from  the 
orators  and  from  famous  poets. 

CXLVI 

Read  a  Lexicon  of  the  pure  style  in  alphabetical  order. 
The  work  is  large  and  copious,  and  more  like  a  number  of 
books.     It  is  extremely  useful  to  those  who  study  the  subject. 

CXLVII 

Read  a  Lexicon  of  the  serious  style.  It  is  of  great  length, 
and  this  labour  of  love  would  be  more  convenient  for  readers 
if  it  were  in  two  or  three  volumes.  It  is  arranged  in  alpha- 
betical order,  and  is  useful  for  those  who  desire  to  raise  their 
style  of  writing  to  the  sublime  and  dignified. 

^  Of  Alexandria,  flourished  under  Theodosius  II  (408-450). 

*  See  p.  224,  note  *.  ^  Grammarian  of  the  time  of  Hadrian. 


222  JULIAN 

CXLAail 

Read  a  special  Lexicon  of  political  style,  in  three  large 
volumes.  This  very  copious  work  will  materially  assist  a 
man  to  success,  and  affords  a  ready  supply  of  counter- 
arguments. For  the  reader  will  not  have  to  learn,  but  merely 
to  note  in  it  the  words  he  requires,  if  he  is  not  altogether 
without  knowledge  of  the  ancient  writers.  This  work  also  is  in 
alphabetical  order. 

CXLIX 

Read  the  Lexicon  of  Pollio  ^  in  alphabetical  order.  It 
contains  many  poetical  words,  but  not  so  many  as  that  of 
Diogenianus,  whose  work  is  twice  as  large. 

CL 

Read  the  Zm^o;?  of  Julian, ^  containing  the  words  used  by 
the  ten  orators,  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  This  book  also 
is  of  very  great  size,  and  contains  an  explanation  of  all  legal 
terms  used  by  the  Athenians,  words  used  by  the  orators  in 
reference  to  private  matters  or  adopted  by  them  after  the 
fashion  of  the  country.  It  is  clear  that  the  work  will  be  of 
very  great  service  in  reading  speeches  together. 

I  also  came  across  a  work  of  Philostratus  ^  of  Tyre  on  the 
same  subject,  no  mean  performance,  although  Julian's  Lexicon 
is  better.  A  similar  work  of  Diodorus  ^  is  in  no  way  inferior  to 
that  of  Julian,  except  that  the  latter  makes  more  use  of  quota- 
tions. I  cannot  say  which  of  them  was  the  earlier  or  which 
borrowed  from  the  other,  for  it  is  evident  that  they  are  not 
independent  compilations. 

CLI 

Read  the  Lexicon  to  Plato  by  Timaeus,^  dedicated  to 
Gentianus,  a  little  work  in  one  book,  arranged  in  alphabetical 
order. 

^  Valerius  Pollio  of  Alexandria.  ^  Nothing  is  known  of  him, 

'  Not  to    be  confused  with    the   author  of  the  Life   of    ApoUoniiis   of 
Tyana  (Cod.   XLIV). 
*  Valerius  Diodorus,  son  of  Pollio  (Cod.  CXLIX). 
^  About  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  A.  D.     The  lexicon  is  extant. 


PAUSANIAS  223 

CLII 

The  same  volume  contains  the  five  books  of  the  first  edition 
of  the  Lexicon  of  Attic  Words  by  Aelius  Dionysius  of  Halicar- 
nassus,^  in  which  the  words  are  arranged  alphabetically  from 
the  first  to  the  last  letter.  It  is  dedicated  to  a  certain  Scymnus 
and  will  be  very  useful  to  those  who  wish  to  write  correct 
Attic  as  well  as  to  those  who  intend  to  study  the  works  of  Attic 
writers.  It  contains  all  the  words  in  use  by  the  Athenians,  at 
festivals  and  in  the  law  courts,  and  it  is  easy  to  find  special  and 
idiomatic  expressions,  especially  if  one  consults  not  only  the 
first,  but  also  the  second  edition  (also  in  five  books),  containing 
words  not  included  in  the  first,  or,  if  included,  not  supported 
by  sufficient  examples,  whereas  the  second  edition  is  fuller  and 
the  quotations  are  more  numerous.  If  any  one  were  to  com- 
bine the  two  editions,  which  would  not  entail  much  labour, 
the  usefulness  of  the  work  would  be  greatly  increased. 

CLIII 

Read  in  the  same  volume  the  Lexicon  of  Pausanias  -  in 
alphabetical  order,  quite  as  useful  as  the  preceding,  if  not  more 
so,  for  the  study  of  Attic  authors.  For  although  the  illustrative 
quotations  are  not  so  numerous,  it  contains  more  words  under 
some  of  the  letters,  so  that  by  itself  it  is  as  large  as  the  two 
editions  of  Aelius  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  although,  as  w^e 
have  said,  it  contains  fewer  examples.  If  any  one  w^ere  to 
combine  the  two  editions  of  Dionysius  and  the  work  of 
Pausanias,  which  could  be  easily  done,  the  result  would  be  an 
admirable  work  and  one  most  useful  in  reading  Attic  literature. 

CLIV 

Read  in  the  same  volume  the  List  of  Platonic  Words  by 
Poethus^  in  alphabetical  order.  It  is  dedicated  to  a  certain 
Melant(h)as,  and  is  far  more  useful  than  the  collection  of 
Timaeus. 

1  Not  the  author  of  the  Roman  Antiquities  (Cod.  LXXXTII). 
^  Flourished  in  the  time  of  Hadrian. 
^  His  identity  is  uncertain. 


224  PHRYNICHUS   THE  ARABIAN 

CLV 

Boethus  was  also  the  author  of  another  little  work  addressed 
to  Athenagoras,  entitled  On  the  Words  of  Doubtful  Meaning  in 
Plalo.  If  any  one  were  to  combine  the  words  in  these  two 
little  works  with  those  included  in  the  work  of  Timaeus,  he 
would  confer  a  great  benefit  on  all  who  are  desirous  of  studying 
Plato. 

CLVI 

Read  in  the  same  volume  a  list  Of  New  and  Foreign  Words 
in  Plato  by  Dorotheus,^  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  It  will 
clearly  be  useful  to  the  student. 

CLVII 

Read  also  the  Atiicist  of  Moeris.^  This  little  work  also  is 
in  alphabetical  order. 

CLVIII 

Read  the  Rhetorical  Equipment  of  Phrynichus  the  Arabian  ^ 
in  thirty-six  books.  It  contains  a  collection  of  words  and 
clauses,  some  of  which,  gracefully  expressed  and  arranged  in  a 
novel  manner,  are  enlarged  into  complete  members.^  Many  of 
these  are  to  be  found  in  the  collection  of  Helladius,  but  there 
they  are  dispersed  throughout  the  bulky  work,  whereas  here 
they  are  all  collected  together,  the  aim  of  Phrynichus  being  to 
make  a  list  of  special  words,  while  Helladius,  being  simply  a 

^  Possibly  Dorotheus  of  Ascalon,  a  Greek  grammarian  often  referred  to 
by  Athenaeus. 

-  Second  century  A. d.  His  lexicon,  called  Ae'|6js  'ArrtKiat  (Attic  words), 
is  extant. 

^  Of  Bithynia,  flourished  under  Marcus  Aurelius  and  Commodus.  He 
was  a  great  stickler  for  purity  of  style.  Only  extracts  and  the  present 
summary  of  the  Equipment  have  been  preserved,  but  a  shorter  work  called 
the  Alticist,  in  which  rules  are  given  for  the  use  or  avoidance  of  various 
expressions,  is  extant. 

^  "Members"  (/cwAa,  membra),  as  distinct  from  "clauses"  (/cc^/x^tara, 
incisd).  The  original  distinction  is  one  of  length,  4  to  6  syllables  being  a 
"  clause,"  7  to  10  a  "  member  "  {cp.  the  use  of  our  own  comma  and  colon). 
According  to  Quintilian,  incisum  is  a  complete  sense  in  which  the  numbers 
or  rhythm  are  not  yet  complete,  membnirii  is  a  complete  sense  and  a  com- 
plete rliythm,  but  while  perfect  as  a  limb,  in  relation  to  its  body  (the  given 
whole  of  which  it  forms  part)  it  is  incomplete  and  has  no  meaning  {see 
Sandys  on  Cicero,  Orator,  212). 


PHRYNICHUS  THE  ARABIAN  225 

lexicographer,  added  them  to  the  common  stock  and  incUided 
them  amongst  the  rest. 

The  writer  flourished  during  the  reign  of  Marcus  AureHus 
and  his  son  Commodus,  to  whom  the  work  is  dedicated  and 
inscribed,  "  Phrynichus  to  Commodus  Caesar,  greeting."  In 
the  preface  he  exhorts  Commodus  to  the  pursuit  of  learning, 
at  the  same  time  praising  his  own  work,  of  which  he  says  that 
he  had  already  composed  thirty-seven  books  and  dedicated 
them  to  the  emperor,  and  promising  to  write  as  many  more 
if  his  life  should  be  spared.  As  we  have  said,  we  have  only 
read  thirty-six  books,  containing  words  beginning  with  the  first 
down  to  the  last  letter  of  the  alphabet. 

In  spite  of  his  assertion  that  he  dedicated  the  work  to  the 
emperor,  he  appears  to  have  inscribed  the  separate  books  to 
different  persons.  Thus,  the  first,  second,  and  third  books  are 
addressed  to  a  certain  Aristocles,^  in  the  hope  that  it  may  serve 
as  an  amusement  and  source  of  recreation  for  him  on  his  birth- 
day ;  the  fourth  to  a  certain  Julian,  a  fellow-citizen  and  friend. 
The  author  adds  that  he  had  at  first  intended  to  dedicate  the 
whole  to  Aristocles,  but  after  by  the  royal  decree  he  became  a 
member  of  the  great  council  at  Rome,  he  decided  to  adopt 
Julian  instead  as  his  friend  and  associate  in  his  labours  and  to 
make  use  of  his  services  as  the  judge  and  critic  of  his  writings. 
In  spite  of  this  promise,  he  dedicates  the  fifth  book  to  a  learned 
friend  of  his,  named  Menodorus,  who  had  previously  censured 
him  for  not  having  adequately  investigated  the  inflexion  of 
words.  The  author  says  that  the  present  book  was  written  at 
the  request  of  Menodorus,  and  excuses  the  delay  in  completing 
it  on  the  ground  that  he  is  suffering  from  strangury,  a  common 
complaint  of  old  age,  long  and  serious  mental  affliction, 
haemorrhage  of  the  stomach,  and  several  other  ailments.  If, 
however,  he  should  regain  his  health,  he  promises  to  complete 
the  present  commission,  and  any  other  work  his  friend  may 
suggest  that  bears  upon  learning  and  good  taste,  and  has  not 
yet  been  attempted.  Nevertheless,  the  sixth  book  again  is 
dedicated  to  a  different  person — Tiberinus ;  the  seventh  to 
another  Menophilus,  who  he  says  is  a  consummate  scholar 
and  has  supplied  whole  passages  in  illustration  of  the  matter 
of  the  sixth  book,  and  exhorts  him  to  collect  as  many  of  these 

1  Of  Pergamum,  Greek  philosopher  and  sophist,  consul  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  author  of  declamations  and  technical  writings  on  rhetoric. 

VOL.  I.  P 


226  PHRYNICHUS  THE  ARABIAN 

words  as  possible  in  his  writings.  The  eighth  book  is  again 
dedicated  to  Julian,  whom  the  author  asks  to  be  good  enough 
to  correct  any  of  his  statements  which  are  unsatisfactory,  for 
which  illness  must  be  his  excuse.  Inscribing  the  ninth  to 
Rufinus,  he  says  that  Aristocles  first  prompted  him  to  begin 
the  book,  but  that  he  (Rufinus)  will  be  responsible  for  its  com- 
pletion, because,  having  seen  the  rest  of  it,  he  recognized  its 
usefulness  and  approved  of  his  labours.  Turning  back  again 
he  dedicates  the  tenth  book  to  Aristocles,  the  next  to 
Menodorus,  in  which  he  states  that  he  had  just  come  across 
the  orations  of  Aristides,^  who  flourished  at  the  time,  and 
speaks  very  highly  of  him.  He  also  says  that  Marcianus  the 
critic,  neglecting  Plato  and  Demosthenes,  expresses  his  prefer- 
ence for  the  letters  of  the  Roman  Brutus  ^  to  all  others  and 
declares  him  to  be  the  model  of  stylistic  excellence.  The 
author  says  that  he  quotes  this  remark  not  because  he  approves 
of  this  judgment,  but  to  prevent  any  one  being  surprised  if 
some  people  think  this  man's  repute  inferior  to  that  of  Aristides, 
despite  his  splendid  oratory  ;  for  Aristides  also,  like  other 
men  distinguished  for  learning,  has  been  assailed  by  some  who 
were  jealous  of  his  achievements.  The  eleventh  book  is  also 
dedicated  to  Menodorus  ;  of  the  rest — that  we  may  not  incur 
the  charge  of  garrulity — one  to  Rheginus,  another  to  Aristocles, 
another  to  Basilides  of  Miletus,  the  sophist,  in  which  he  says 
that,  as  soon  as  he  found  respite  from  disease,  he  wrote  this 
book  for  him,  and  begs  him  to  correct  the  mistakes  that  may 
be  due  to  illness.  All  the  other  books,  down  to  the  end,  which 
we  have  read,  are  dedicated  to  Menophilus. 

The  work  will  no  doubt  be  useful  to  aspiring  authors  and 
orators.  The  compiler  says  that  he  has  divided  the  words 
collected  by  him  into  such  as  are  adapted  for  oratory,  written 
composition,  and  conversation,  for  a  derisive,  contemptuous,  or 
amatory  style.  The  best  models,  norms,  and  standards  of 
undiluted  and  pure  Attic  speech  are  considered  by  the  author 
to  be  Plato,  Demosthenes  and  the  other  nine  Attic  orators, 
Thucydides,    Xenophon,  Aeschines^  the  son  of  Lysanias  the 

^  Publius  Aelius  Aristides  {c,  129-189)  famous  rhetorician,  born  at 
Hadrianutherai  in  Mysia,  friend  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  He  was  a  priest  of 
Asclepius  (Aesculapius)  at  Smyrna.  More  than  fifty  of  his  orations  and 
declamations  are  extant. 

^  Marcus  Junius  Brutus  (85-42  B.C.),  the  conspirator. 

^  Lived  in  Syracuse,  at  the  court  of  Dionysius  the  Younger (356  B.C.), 


ISOCRATES  227 

Socratic,  Critias  ^  the  son  of  Callaeschrus,  and  Antisthenes  ^ 
with  his  two  orations  in  praise  of  Cyrus  and  Odysseus ;  of 
writers  of  comedy,  Aristophanes  and  his  band,  where  they  use 
Attic  ;  of  tragedians,  Aeschylus  the  mighty-voiced,  Sophocles 
the  sweet,  and  the  all-wise  Euripides.  While  preferring  these  to 
all  other  authors,  orators,  and  poets,  he  again  puts  first  those 
whom  (as  he  says)  Momus  ^  himself  would  not  blame  and,  even 
if  the  fabled  Corycian  god  ^  made  grimaces  at  them,  would  not 
rejoice  ;  these  are  Plato,  Demosthenes,  and  Aeschines  the  son 
of  Lysanias  because  of  the  excellence  of  his  seven  dialogues, 
which  some  consider  not  to  have  been  written  by  him,  but 
ascribe  them  to  Socrates.     So  much  for  these  matters. 

The  writer  displays  great  learning,  but  is  verbose  and 
excessively  prolix.  For  the  work,  without  omitting  anything  of 
importance,  could  have  been  reduced  to  a  fifth  of  its  size, 
whereas  the  author,  by  an  ill-timed  use  of  words,  has  spun  it 
out  to  an  unmanageable  length,  and  while  collecting  material 
for  elegance  and  beauty  of  style,  fails  to  translate  his  own 
precepts  into  example. 

CLIX  ' 

Read  the  twenty-one  Orations  and  nine  Letters  of  Isocrates.^ 

and  afterwards  wrote  speeches  for  the  law-courts  at  Athens.  He  is,  of 
course,  not  identical  with  the  rival  of  Demosthenes  {see  p.  62,  note  ^). 

^  One  of  the  most  hated  of  the  Thirty  Oligarchs  or  Tyrants  at  Athens 
(404  B.C.).  He  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  and  a  poet  and  orator  of  no  mean 
order. 

^  c.  440-370  B.C.,  founder  of  the  Cynic  school.  He  was  first  a  pupil  of 
the  famous  sophist  Gorgias  of  Leontini,  then  of  Socrates. 

"^  The  personification  of  blame  or  censure. 

^  According  to  Suidas,  the  inhabitants  of  Corycus  (a  promontory  in 
Pamphylia),  to  avoid  being  plundered  by  pirates,  used  to  go  and  listen  in 
other  harbours  to  find  out  where  certain  vessels  were  bound,  and  then 
informed  the  pirates.  He  adds  that  the  comic  poets  introduced  a  Corycian 
god,  one  who  was  always  listening.  Ephorus  gives  a  somewhat  different 
story.  The  text  is  unsatisfactory  here  and  the  meaning  is  not  very  clear. 
J.  H.  Leich's  suggestion,  x^P'-^^'^^^  {segregarel),  in  his  essay  on  the 
Bibliotheca  (1748),  does  not  mend  matters. 

5  436-338  B.C.  One  of  the  "ten"  Attic  orators.  The  political  object 
of  his  speeches  was  to  unite  the  Greek  world  against  its  hereditary  enemy, 
Persia.  His  twenty-one  extant  speeches  are  distinguished  by  high  artistic 
finish,  and  are  most  carefully  elaborated.  The  news  of  the  battle  of 
Chaeronea  {ZZ^)^  ^^  which  the  Athenians  were  utterly  defeated  by  Philip  of 


228  ISOCRATES 

His  "  deliberative  "  ^  speeches  are  those  To  Demonicus  and  To 
NicodeSj  containing  useful  advice  ;  a  second  to  Nicocles,  and 
one  On  the  Peace.     The  object  of  the  Panegyriciis  is  the  con- 
sideration   of  the   means  of  ensuring  harmony   amongst  the 
Greeks  themselves,  and  of  the  best  methods  for  carrying  on  war 
against  the  barbarians,  but  by  far  the  greater  part  is  devoted 
to  a  glorification  of  the  Athenians.     The  Areopagiticus  is  also 
one    of  the  "deliberative"  speeches,  inciting   the    Athenians 
to  virtue  by  the  praise  of  their  ancestors,  and    by  censuring 
their  descendants.     The  Plataicus  and  the  Archidamus  are  also 
"deliberative";  in  the  latter  he  urges  the  Spartans  to  make 
war  against  the  Thebans  on  the  question  of  the  Messenians. 
In  the   oration  Against  the  Sophists   he   attacks  his  political 
opponents.     The  next  speech  is  an  Encomium  of  Busiris,^  as 
the  title  indicates.     The  eleventh  is  an  Encomium  of  Helen. 
The  twelfth,  Evagoras^  is  a  eulogy  of  that  king,  dedicated  to 
his  son  Nicocles.     The  Philippus  is  a  "  deliberative  "  speech, 
recommending    Philip    to    endeavour    to    promote    harmony 
amongst   the    Greeks   and   devote   his   attention   to  a  united 
advance  against  the  barbarians  in  Asia.     The  Panathenaicus 
is   a   eulogy  of  Athens  and   the  ancestors  of  the  Athenians, 
which  he   says  he  began  to  write  when  he   was    ninety-four 
years  of  age,  but  was  prevented  by  a  three-years'  severe  attack 
of  illness  from  completing  it  until  he  was  ninety-seven.     The 
speech   called  Antidosis  (exchange  of  properties)  appears  to 
belong  to  the  class  of   "  forensic "    speeches  and   contains  a 
defence  against  the  slanders  of  one  Lysimachus  against  him. 
This  speech,  the  longest  of  those  of  this  class,  was  composed 
when  he  was  eighty-two  years  of  age,  and  the  matter  is  more 
mixed  and  varied  than   that  of  the  rest ;    he  inserts  extracts 
from    his   other   speeches,    in  order  to  show  that  he  is   not 
corrupting  the  young  men,  but  promoting  the  common  welfare. 
The  speech  Against  Callimachus,  as  also  the  Aegiueticus  (dealing 


Macedon,  is  said  to  have  killed  the  aged  orator — "killed  with  report  that 
old  man  eloquent"  (Milton).  He  was  too  timid  to  speak  in  public 
himself,  and  opened  a  school  of  rhetoric,  which  was  largely  attended. 

^  Speeches  were  divided  into  deliberative,  forensic,  and  epideictic  (show 
speeches). 

^  Egyptian  prince  who  put  to  death  strangers  arriving  in  his  country. 
He  was  slain  by  Hercules. 

^  King  of  Salamis  in  Cyprus  [see  p.  109). 


CHORICIUS  229 

with  a  claim  to  inheritance),  the  speech  Against  Euthynus  on 
behalf  of  Nicias,  the  Trapeziticus  (an  action  against  a  banker), 
and  Against  Lochites  (a  claim  for  damages  for  outrage  and 
assault)  are  also  "forensic."  These  are  the  twenty  one  orations 
of  Isocrates  that  we  have  read.  Of  his  nine  Letters^  one  is 
addressed  to  Dionysius  the  tyrant  of  Sicily,  another  to  Archi- 
damus,  two  to  Philip,  one  to  Alexander,  one  to  Antipater,  one 
to  Timotheus,  and  the  ninth  to  the  Archons  of  Mytilene.^ 

This  writer  preferred  to  give  instruction  in  rhetoric  rather 
than  take  part  in  the  management  of  public  affairs,  like  the 
other  nine  orators,  of  whom  Demosthenes  was  one  ;  although 
even  before  their  time  he  had  a  great  reputation  as  a  rhetorician, 
and;,  later,  was  in  no  way  considered  their  inferior.  His  chief 
characteristics,  as  at  once  becomes  obvious  to  the  reader,  are 
purity  and  distinctness,  and  excessive  care  in  the  workmanship 
of  his  speeches,  which  frequently  degenerates  into  superfluous 
orderliness  and  over-elaboration.  His  infinite  capacity  for 
taking  pains  generates  want  of  taste  rather  than  of  resource- 
fulness in  argument.  He  lacks  impressiveness,^  sincerity,  and 
liveliness,^  but  in  his  political  orations  he  makes  admirable 
use  of  dignity  and  perspicuity  in  equal  proportions.  His  style 
is  feeble,  and  the  use  of  evenly-balanced  clauses  ad  nauseam, 
as  much  as  anything  else,  shows  his  excessive  attention  to  petty 
detail.  But  we  acknowledge  the  general  excellence  of  his 
language,  and  only  make  these  criticisms  to  point  out  where  it 
has  gone  astray  and  does  not  do  justice  to  itself.  For,  in 
comparison  with  some  of  those  who  undertake  to  compose 
speeches,  even  his  faults  appear  virtues. 

CLX 

Read  the  Declamations  and  Orations  of  different  kinds  by 
the  sophist  Choricius  of  Gaza.-^  He  is  a  lover  of  clearness  and 
purity  of  style,  and  if  he  expatiates  for  any  useful  purpose,  the 
clearness    of  his  thoughts  is  in    no  way  impaired,   since  the 

^  The  letter  to  the  child  1  en  of  Jason  of  Pherae  completes  the  nine. 
Opinions  are  divided  as  to  the  genuineness  of  the  letters. 

^  Or,  "delineation  of  character"  (Van  Hook). 

^  "  Fiery  earnestness  "  (Jebb). 

*  Flourished  at  the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century  A.D.,  pupil  of  Procopius 
of  Gaza.  He  was  nominally  a  Christian,  but  his  point  of  view  and  manner 
of  expression  are  pagan.  Several  of  his  panegyrics,  funeral  orations, 
w  edding  speeches,  and  school  declamations  are  extant. 


230  SOPATER 

expansion  is  not  ill-timed  and  never  reaches  the  length  of  a 
complete  period.     In  his  writings,  character  and  sincerity  are 
combined,  while  at  the  same  time  he  does  not  neglect  the 
inculcation   of  moral   lessons.     As   a   rule   he   uses  carefully 
selected  words,  although  not  always  in  their  proper  sense ;  for 
sometimes,  owing  to  his  unrestricted  use  of  figurative  language, 
he  falls  into  frigidity,  and  sometimes  is  carried  away  into  the . 
poetical   style.     But   he   is   at   his    best    in   descriptions   and 
eulogies.     He  is  an  upholder  of  the  true  religion  and  respects 
the  rites  and  holy  places  of  the  Christians,  although  for  some 
reason  or  other,  contemptuously  and  without  any  excuse,  he 
unjustifiably  introduces  Greek  myths  and  heathen  stories  in 
his    writings,  sometimes   even  when  discussing  sacred  things. 
Many  writings  by  him  of  various  kinds  are  in  circulation  ;  one 
meets  with   fictitious,   laudatory,   and   controversial    speeches, 
monodies,  nuptial  songs,  and  many  others.     He  flourished  in 
the   time  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  and  was  a  pupil  of  the 
rhetorician    Procopius,^    not    him    of    Caesarea,    a   most   dis- 
tinguished man,  who  at  that  time,  by  the  composition  of  his 
useful  and  valuable  historical  works,  left  behind  an  undying 
renown  amongst  all  lovers  of  learning.     In  his  own  country  he 
was   connected   with    the   other    Procopius  as  his  teacher   in 
rhetoric,  who,  when  he  reached  old  age,  had  the  pleasure  of 
seeing  his  pupil  take  his  place   at  the   head    of  his    school. 
Many   of  his   orations    of  all   kinds    are   in    circulation,    all 
deserving  of  careful  study  and  imitation.     Indeed,  the  whole 
book  called  Translations  of  Homeric  Verses,  in  which  the  form 
is  completely  changed  in  various  styles,  is  sufficient  to  show 
his    vigorous    rhetorical    powers,    which,    as    far  as    a    pupil 
can,   Choricius  has  imitated.     Both  were   Christians,  and   in 
their  orations  they  frequently,  and  not  perfunctorily,  discuss 
the  making  of  sacred  images.    The  death  of  his  master  supplied 
Choricius  with  the  subject  of  a  funeral  oration. 

CLXI 

Read  the  Various  Extracts  of  the  sophist  Sopater,^  in  twelve 
books,   compiled   from  the  works  of  different  historians  and 

^  Procopius  of  Gaza  (465-528). 

2  Perhaps  Sopater  of  Apaniea,  who  was  at  first  intimate  with  Constantine 
the  Great,  but  was  put  to  death  by  him  on  account  of  his  pagan  propaganda. 


SOPATER  231 

writers.  The  first  book  gives  an  account  of  the  fables  of  the 
gods  from  the  third  book  of  Apollodorus,^  an  Athenian  who 
taught  grammar,  On  the  Gods.  The  selections  are  not  from  the 
third  book  alone,  but  also  from  the  fourth,  fifth,  ninth,  first, 
twelfth,  fifteenth,  and  sixteenth,  down  to  the  twenty-fourth. 
The  collection  includes  the  mythical  tales  and  fictions  concern- 
ing the  gods  and  whatever  else  is  of  any  historical  value,  such 
as  the  stories  of  the  heroes,  the  Dioscuri,'^  and  those  in  Hades, 
and  the  like.  The  compiler  has  also  drawn  upon  the  second 
book  of  Juba^  On  Painting,  and  upon  the  Deipnosophists  of 
Athenaeus  ^  of  Naucratis.  Such  are  the  sources  and  contents 
of  the  first  book. 

The  second  book  is  from  the  first  book  and  onwards  down 
to  the  tenth  book  of  the  Epitomes  of  Pamphila,^  the  daughter 
of  Soteridas,  and  from  Artemon  *^  of  Magnesia's  On  Remark- 
able Deeds  of  Women,  the  Apophthegms  of  Diogenes "  the 
Cynic,  the  eighth  book  of  Sappho,^  and  various  other  writers. 
Such  is  the  second  book  of  the  extracts. 

The  third  book  is  from  the  Various  History  of  Favorinus,^ 
from  books  N,  H,  and  the  rest  in  order,  with  the  exception  of 
T,  up  to  Q.  These  contain  various  histories,  the  reasons  and 
origins  and  meanings  of  words  and  names,  and  the  like.  This 
ends  the  third  book. 

The  fourth  book  is  compiled  from  an  anonymous  work 
entitled  a  Collectio7i  of  Wo/iderful  Thi?igs,  from  the  sixteenth 
book  of  the  Miscella7ieous  Notes  of  Aristoxenus,^^  and  from  the 

^  Flourished  about  140  B.C.  '  Castor  and  Pollux. 

^  King  of  Mauretania,  born  c.  50  B.C.,  died  c.  a.d.  20.  He  was  a 
most  prolific  writer  on  all  kinds  of  subjects. 

*  Of  Naucratis,  in  Egypt  ;  flourished  at  Rome  during  the  reign  of 
Commodus  and  his  successors.  His  Doctors  at  Dinner  (Sandys)  is  a  kind 
of  encyclopaedia,  in  which  are  preserved  numerous  quotations  from  some 
700  ancient  authors,  especially  of  the  Middle  and  New  Comedy. 

^  Learned  female  grammarian  of  the  time  of  Nero  ;  author  of  a  work 
baring  upon  the  history  of  literature  {see  Cod.  CLXXV). 

•^  Nothing  further  is  known  of  him. 

'  403-323  B.C. 

^  Of  Eresus  or  Mytilene  in  Lesbos.  Two  complete  poems  and  numerous 
fragments  remain,  increased  by  the  papyrus-finds  in  Egypt. 

^  Of  Arelate  (Aries);  sceptic;  author  of  numerous  popular  philosophical 
works,  epideictic  declamations,  and  speeches.  He  chiefly  resided  in  Ron  e, 
and  was  patronised  by  Hadrian. 

^0  Of  Tarentum  ;  flourished  318  B.C.     He  was  a  great  authority  on  music 
and  rhythm  (he  w^as  called  6  ij.ov(tik6s),  and  wrote  on  almost  every  subject. 


232  SOPATER 

eighth  book  of  the  Dramatic  History  of  Rufus.^  Here  are  to 
be  found  many  improbable  and  incredible  things,  various  tragic 
and  comic  incidents,  dialogues  and  speeches,  manners  and 
customs,  and  the  like,  with  which  the  fourth  book  ends. 

The  fifth  book  consists  of  extracts  from  the  first,  second, 
and  third  books  of  Rufus's  Musical  History.  It  contains  an 
account  of  different  comedians  and  tragedians,  of  writers  of 
dithyrambs,  players  on  the  flute  and  cithara,  of  nuptial  songs 
and  song  accompanied  by  dance,  of  dancers  and  others  who 
took  part  in  theatrical  contests,  the  origin  and  family  antece- 
dents of  those  among  them  who  became  famous,  whether  men 
or  women  ;  which  of  them  were  known  as  the  originators  of 
what  practices,  which  of  them  were  the  friends  and  intimates 
of  emperors  and  kings ;  what  the  contests  were  and  whence 
derived,  in  which  each  exhibited  his  art.  The  general  festivals 
celebrated  by  the  whole  Athenian  people  are  also  described. 
All  these  things,  and  the  like,  the  reader  will  find  in  the  fifth 
book. 

The  sixth  book  is  from  the  fourth  and  fifth  books  of  the 
Musical  History  by  the  same  Rufus.  It  gives  an  account  of 
flute-players,  of  the  songs  sung  to  the  flute  by  men  and  women, 
of  the  poets  Homer,  Hesiod,  and  Antimachus,- and  most  of  the 
other  poets  belonging  to  their  school,  and  tells  us  something 
about  female  soothsayers,  who  the  so-called  Sibyls  were  and 
whence  they  came,  all  borrowed  from  Rufus.  The  second 
book  of  the  Halieutica  of  Damostratus,^  and  the  first,  fifth, 
ninth,  and  tenth  books  of  the  Lives  of  the  Philosophers  by 
Diogenes  Laertius  *  are  also  drawn  upon.  We  have  an  account 
of  the  philosophers  and  of  the  origin  of  the  divine  study — 
philosophy ;  how  it  flourished,  who  were  the  heads  and 
champions  of  the  different  schools,  who  were  their  followers 

^  It  is  uncertain  whether  he  is  identical  with  the  author  of  the  Musical 
and  Roman  Histories  mentioned  below,  or  whether  the  author  of  the  last 
is  an  orator  of  whose  rhetorical  work  a  fragment  has  been  preserved. 

"^  Of  Colophon  or  Claros,  contemporary  of  Plato.  His  elegy  Lyde,  on 
the  death  of  his  mistress,  was  famous.  He  also  wrote  a  long-winded  epic, 
Thebais,  and  was  the  author  of  an  edition  of  Homer. 

^  Roman  senator;  lived  a  little  earlier  than  Aelian  (r.  A.u.  170-230), 
Besides  the  Halieutica  (On  Fishing),  he  wrote  on  aquatic  divination,  and 
marvellous  things. 

*  His  date  is  unknown,  possibly  the  second  half  of  the  third  century  a.d. 
T  he  Lives  is  an  undigested  and  uncritical  compilation  from  different  works. 


SOPATER  233 

or  rivals,  the  character  exhibited  by  each,  their  birth  and 
origin,  their  manner  of  life  from  the  beginning,  and  the  time 
in  which  they  flourished.  The  book  also  contains  information 
about  rhetoric  and  rhetoricians,  extracts  from  Aelius  Dionysius's 
work  On  Alexandria,  and  from  the  Aegyptiaca  of  Hellanicus,^ 
and  concludes  with  various  mythical  and  fictitious  stories  and 
other  things. 

The  seventh  book  is  a  kind  of  anthology  from  the  History 
of  Herodotus. 

The  eighth  book  consists  of  extracts  from  an  old  and 
anonymous  work.  It  gives  a  list  of  women  who  rose  to  fame 
and  made  a  brilliant  name,  of  the  deeds  of  certain  men  and 
their  meetings  for  the  study  of  rhetoric,  of  the  excellence 
of  friendship,  and  the  maxims  of  worthy  men.  There  are  also 
selections  from  Plutarch's  essays  on  How  a  Young  Man  should 
Listen  to  the  Poets  and  on  Nature  and  Labours,  showing  how 
many,  often  with  great  difficulty,  have  reformed  a  vicious 
nature,  while  others  through  carelessness  have  allowed  a  good 
one  to  become  corrupted ;  how  some  who  in  their  younger 
days  were  looked  upon  as  slow  and  unintelligent,  when  they 
grew  up  were  distinguished  by  brilliant  qualities,  quick-witted- 
ness,  and  intellectual  gifts.  Also  from  the  treatises  On 
Shamejacedness,  On  Garrulity,  On  Anger,  On  How  One  shotdd 
Obtain  Benefit  from  One's  Enemies,  On  Cheerfulness,  On  Political 
Precepts,  On  Wealth,  How  One  can  be  Conscious  of  Progress  in 
Virtue,  On  Rules  of  Health,  On  Marriage  Precepts.  Amongst 
these  extracts  is  to  be  found  much  that  is  worthy  of  being 
remembered,  both  words  and  deeds,  which  will  be  found 
serviceable  in  many  respects.  Such  is  the  contents  of  the 
eighth  book. 

The  ninth  book  consists  of  extracts  from  Plutarch's  The 
Slow  Vengeance  of  the  Gods,  the  Lives  of  Demetrius  and  Of  Brutus 
thj  Roman,  the  book  entitled  Apophthegms  of  Famous  Men,  the 
little  treatise  On  Rivers,  and  How  to  Distinguish  the  Flatterer 
from  the  Friend,  the  Lives  of  Crates,  Daiphantus,  and  Pindar, 
and  the  work  entitled  Apophthegms  of  Kings  and  Generals,  and 
the  first  to  the  eighth  of  the  Convivial  Discourses.  Such  is  the 
matter  supplied  by  Plutarch.     The  author  has  also  borrowed 

^  Of  Mytilene  (died  c.  405  B.C.).  He  wrote  several  genealogical  works, 
and  the  history  of  various  countries  and  peoples,  amongst  them  an  Atthis 
(history  of  Attica),  and  Iroica  (History  of  Troy). 


234  SOPATER 

from  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  books  of  Rufus's 
Roman  History,  in  which  will  be  found  much  that  deserves 
mention  although  mixed  up  with  fables  and  long-winded 
nonsense.     Such  is  the  contents  of  the  ninth  book. 

The  tenth  book  is  compiled  from  the  Erato  of  Cephalion,^ 
and  describes  the  life  and  deeds  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  from 
the  treatise  of  Apollonius  the  Stoic  ^ ;  concerning  women  who 
have  been  philosophers  or  have  achieved  fame  by  anything 
else,  or  by  whose  mediation  families  were  reconciled ;  from  the 
History  of  Macedon  by  Theagenes ;  ^  from  Plutarch's  Lives  of 
Nicias,  Alcibiades,  Themistocles,  Theseus,  Lycurgus,  Solon, 
and  Alexander  the  son  of  Philip,  Cimon,  [Lysander,  Demos- 
thenes], Pericles,  Pelopidas,  Phocion,  and  Aristides,  containing 
much  that  is  worthy  of  being  narrated  and  recorded.  Such  is 
the  contents  of  the  tenth  book. 

The  eleventh  book  is  in  like  manner  compiled  from  Plu- 
tarch's Lives  of  Epaminondas,  Dion,  Agesilaus,  Agis,  Cleomenes, 
Eumenes  of  Cardia,  Philopoemen,*  Aratus,  who  when  general 
of  the  Achaean  league  commanded  the  forces  seventeen  times 
and  greatly  distinguished  himself  in  the  field,  and  Pyrrhus,  king 
of  Epirus ;  from  the  first  and  second  books  of  Aristophanes  ^ 
the  grammarian's  work  On  Animals,  and  the  seventeenth  book 
of  king  Juba's  Theatrical  History.  Such  is  the  contents  of 
the  eleventh  book. 

The  twelfth  book  is  taken  from  various  sources  :  Callixenus's® 
Catalogue  of  Painters  and  Sculptors,  Aristonicus's  '^  On  the 
Museum  at  Alexandria,  the  Constitutions  of  Aristotle,  dealing 
with  those  of  the  Thessalians,  Achaeans,  Parians,  Lycians, 
Chians,  and  of  all  the  peoples  whom  he  has  mentioned  in  his 
political  writings,  the  usefulness  of  which  is  evident.  Such 
is  the  contents  of  the  twelfth  book. 

1  See  Cod.  LXVIII.  2  pij-^t  century  B.C. 

^  His  date  is  uncertain.  The  work  was  much  used  by  Stephanus  of 
Byzantium,  the  geographer.  *  Add  Timoleon. 

^  Of  Byzantium  {c.  257-180  B.C.),  successor  of  Eratosthenes  as  librarian 
of  Alexandiia.  He  is  famous  for  his  editions  of  Homer  and  other  poets, 
in  which  he  introduced  accents  and  other  marks  to  be  used  in  the  criticism 
of  the  text. 

^  Of- Rhodes,  end  of  third  century  B.C.  Wrote  on  art  and  a  descriptive 
account  of  Alexandria. 

'  Of  Alexandria,  contemporary  of  Slrabo  (who  died  c.  A.D.  24).  lie 
wrote  on  the  critical  marks  used  in  the  I/iad  and  Odyssey,  and  commen- 
taries on  Homer  and  Pindar. 


EUSEBIUS  OF  THESSALONICA  235 

The  work  is  very  useful  to  the  reader.  For  although  it  is 
not  free  from  fabulous,  monstrous,  false  and  improbable  state- 
ments, as  I  have  already  mentioned  more  than  once,  yet  from 
those  which  are  as  it  were  contributions  from  the  storehouse 
of  learning,  one  may  gather  much  that  promotes  virtue  and 
honesty.  For  the  student  of  rhetoric  and  sophistic,  as  he 
himself  says  to  his  friends  in  the  introduction,  they  are  of 
considerable  importance  and  will  be  very  serviceable.  The 
diction  is  varied,  not  confined  to  one  style,  although  clearness 
is  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  entire  work. 

CLXII 

Read  a  work  by  a  certain  Eusebius,^  a  bishop  of  the  orthodox 
faith,  in  ten  books,  written  against  a  monk  named  Andrew, 
and  called  forth  by  his  behaviour.  He  wrote  a  letter  to  Euse- 
bius,  which  he  calls  a  pastoral  letter,  imploring  him  to  read  it. 
Eusebius,  having  done  so,  first  reprimands  Andrew  for  his 
ignorance  and  temerity,  showing  that  he  had  made  many 
mistakes  in  spelling  and  could  not  write  a  line  without  making 
a  blunder,  but  that  notwithstanding  he  had  had  the  audacity 
to  write,  forgetting  his  profession  and  the  repose  of  a  monastic 
life.  He  then  refutes  Andrew's  heretical  opinions  at  length, 
for  he  was  one  of  the  sect  called  Aphthartodocetae^'^  from  the 
impious  doctrine  that  they  held.  He  first  points  out  that 
Andrew  must  explain  why  he  used  the  word  (fiOopd  (corruption) 
in  only  one  sense,  thinking  that  it  referred  to  sin  only,  whereas 
our  Holy  Fathers,  in  their  usage  of  words,  have  traditionally 
applied  it  to  different  things.  Secondly,  he  reproves  him  be- 
cause he  ventured  to  declare,  like  Julian,  that  the  body  of  the 
Lord  was  immortal,  impassible,  and  incorruptible  from  the 
union  (of  the  two  natures),  although  in  this  very  letter  he 
asserts  that  he  has  undertaken  to  oppose  Severus  and  Julian, 

^  Bishop  of  Thessalonica,  r.  600. 

2  A  Monophysite  sect,  which  held  that  the  one  nature  of  Christ  was  not 
subject  to  corruption  (icpdapTos),  understanding  by  corruption  {(pOopd)  not 
only  the  corruption  following  on  death  and  moral  depravity,  but  all  needs 
of  the  body,  sufferings,  and  weaknesses,  against  which  no  reproach  could 
be  made  (dSm^SATjTa).  The  docetae  part  of  the  compound  seems  to  mean 
that  Christ's  body  was  not  what  it  appeared,  for  it  does  not  appear  that 
they  regarded  it  as  a  phantasm,  a  body  in  appearance  only.  They  admitted 
it  was  real  and  substantial. 


236  EUSEBIUS  OF  THESSALONICA 

since  they  deny  that  there  are  two  natures  or  two  substances, 
two  properties  or  two  energies,  in  Christ.  Thirdly,  because  he 
insisted  that  the  body  of  Adam  before  the  fall  was  neither 
formed  entirely  mortal  nor  corruptible  by  nature,  from  which, 
according  to  him,  it  would  follow  that  Christ  had  assumed  from 
the  very  union  an  incorruptible  and  impassible  body ;  whereas, 
in  reality,  he  ought  to  have  thought  and  said  that  the  body  of 
Adam  was  by  nature  mortal  and  passible,  but  by  divine  grace 
was  kept  immortal  and  impassible,  until  his  trangression  de- 
prived him  of  that  protection.  Such  is  the  unanimous  opinion 
of  the  Holy  Fathers.  Fourthly,  because  he  called  the  present 
world  incorruptible  and  indestructible,  whereas  he  ought  to 
hold  that  it  is  corruptible  and  changeable.  In  his  first  reply 
the  bishop  exhorted  Andrew  to  retract  his  opinion  on  many 
other  points,  at  the  same  time  convicting  him  of  obscurity  and 
of  blasphemy  in  his  language. 

Andrew,  after  he  had  received  this  exhortation  to  mend  his 
ways,  went  from  bad  to  worse,  and  wrote  another  work  in  which 
he  again  set  forth  at  greater  length  the  views  he  had  previously 
expressed  and,  as  he  imagines,  establishes  their  truth.  As  we 
have  said,  the  pious  Eusebius  wrote  ten  books  to  combat  these 
propositions,  in  which  he  shows  that  Andrew,  not  content  with 
the  definition  of  faith  marked  out  by  the  holy  synods,  has 
audaciously  drawn  up  an  exposition  of  faith  of  his  own  ;  that 
he  has  wrenched  many  passages  from  the  Fathers,  and  falsified 
and  violently  pressed  them  into  the  support  of  his  views ; 
that  he  contradicts  both  the  New  and  Old  Testament  and  our 
Holy  Fathers  in  asserting  that  the  world  is  incorruptible  and 
indestructible ;  that  he  says  that  change,  transformation,  flux, 
can  easily  be  misrepresented,  just  like  the  sufferings  which 
have  their  origin  in  vice,  and  that  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
assumed  a  body  that  was  unchangeable,  impassible,  incor- 
ruptible, and  without  flux.  Again,  he  censures  him  because 
he  asserts  that  the  world  is  eternal,  incorruptible,  and  ungener- 
ated,  and  does  not  admit  the  transformation  of  the  elements 
which  contributes  to  its  eternity,  since  he  teaches  that  it  is  one 
of  the  passions  which  can  easily  be  misrepresented ;  that  the 
body  of  Adam  was  formed  incorruptible,  immortal,  and  impas- 
sible by  nature,  and  not  only  this,  but  that  the  clay  of  which 
it  was  formed  is  incorruptible.  Eusebius  also  censures  him  for 
taking  the  word  "  corruption  "  in  only  one  sense,  whereby  he 


EUSEBIUS  OF  THESSALONICA  237 

shows  that  God  is  not  the  author  of  corruption  or  death  or 
any  vicious  passion,  but  not  even  of  sinful  thoughts,  although 
He  is  the  author  of  corruptible  and  mortal  substances,  for  these 
do  not  belong  to  existing  things  and  have  no  subsistence  in 
themselves.  He  also  rebukes  him  for  saying  that  the  Lord's 
body  from  the  very  union  is  impassible,  incorruptible,  and 
unchangeable,  and  in  order  to  prove  this,  as  he  imagines,  he 
shows  that  he  has  to  rely  upon  his  other  nonsenical  ideas  about 
the  world  and  Adam.  In  the  same  work  Eusebius  shows  in 
what  and  how  many  meanings  the  words  <fiOopd  and  KaracftOopi 
and  ha<j)9op6.  are  used  in  the  Scriptures :  of  physical  affections  that 
are  by  no  means  reprehensible,  and  of  those  that  result  from 
labour,  fatigue,  and  old  age,  old  age  being  the  corruption  of 
youth,  as  labour  and  fatigue  of  bodily  tone  ;  of  bodily  humilia- 
tion in  ascetic  and  spiritual  struggles,  for  the  apostle  says, 
"Although  our  outer  man  be  corrupted,  our  inner  body  is 
renewed";^  of  the  affliction  and  wasting  away  of  the  body 
by  blows  and  punishment ;  of  the  injury,  partial  or  entire,  in 
the  case  of  animals,  seeds,  and  plants  ;  even  of  death  itself,  and, 
besides  this,  of  the  dissolution  and  flux  of  the  bodies  which 
take  place  in  the  grave ;  lastly,  of  vicious  affections  or  sins. 
Since  then  the  words  for  "corruption"  could  be  used  in  so 
many  ways,  Eusebius  is  justified  in  stating  that  Andrew  is 
wrong  in  attaching  only  one  meaning  to  these  words. 

He  confirms  his  arguments  by  passages  from  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  from  certain  select  Fathers,  Athanasius  and 
the  three  Gregories  (Thaumaturgus,  Theologus,  and  of  Nyssa), 
Basil  of  Caesarea,  John  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
Proclus  of  Constantinople,^  Methodius  ^  the  holy  martyr,  and 
Quadratus,^from  some  of  whose  writings  Andrew  had  wrenched 
and  falsified  passages  and  by  explaining  them  either  with 
deliberate  malice  or  through  ignorance,  so  as  to  support  his 
own  view,  imagined  that  he  was  confirming  his  own  mistaken 
opinions.  But  he  pays  the  penalty  of  all  that  has  been  men- 
tioned to  Eusebius,  for  his  tampering  with  the  letter,  his 
wickedness,  and  folly,  and  for  putting  together  certain  passages 

^  2  Cor.  iv.  16. 

2  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  died  447.  He  was  a  friend  and  pupil  of 
Chrysostom  ;  some  of  his  sermons  and  letters  are  extant. 

'  Bishop  of  Olympus  and  Patara  in  Lvcia  in  the  fourth  century.  It  is 
not  certain  that  he  suffered  martyrdom.  See  Codd.  CCXXXI V-CCXXXVII. 

*  Christian  apologist  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian. 


238  EUSEBIUS  OF  THESSALONICA 

from  heretical  writings  and  venturing  to  ascribe  them  to  our 
Holy  Fathers. 

From  Andrew's  foolish  utterances  Eusebius  also  shows  that 
he  is  of  opinion  that  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  not  being  changed 
by  resurrection  from  corruption  to  incorruption,  is  equally 
impassible  in  his  manhood  and  divinity ;  that  he  dared  to  call 
those  blasphemers  who  thought  and  said  that  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  lived  on  earth  with  a  mortal  and  passible  body,  while 
he  himself  is  not  ashamed,  after  His  victory  over  sufferings  and 
the  abolition  of  death  and  corruption,  monstrously  to  assert 
that  the  body  of  the  Lord  is  passible,  forgetting  that,  while 
insulting  the  ortliodox  by  calling  them  Phthartolatrae  ^  he 
himself  is  clearly  convicted  of  being  Pathetolatrae!^  He  then 
again  adds  some  passages  from  the  Fathers,  and  shows  that 
the  Lord's  body  was  passible,  mortal,  and  consequently  cor- 
ruptible until  His  glorious  resurrection,  and  that  then  by  itself 
it  became  immortal  and  impassible.  He  also  shows  that 
Andrew  talks  idly  in  calling  the  orthodox  Phthartolatrae^  a 
name  which  is  fitting  and  suitable  for  Arius,  Aetius,  Eunomius, 
ApoUinarius,  and  Nestorius,  but  not  for  orthodox  Christians. 
Eusebius  also  lays  down  the  doctrine  that  our  Lord  and  God, 
since  He,  as  the  architect  of  nature,  assumed  our  natural  and 
by  no  means  reprehensible  "passions  "(which  are  not  properly 
called  "passions"  but  might  more  fitly  be  called  "works  of 
nature"),  was  incapable  of  taking  upon  Him  "passions" 
properly  so  called,  originating  from  vice ;  that  He  ate  and 
drank  with  His  disciples  after  the  Resurrection  not  in  the 
.  same  manner  as  He  ate  and  drank  before  the  Resurrection ; 
in  the  latter  case  He  acted  according  to  the  law  of  nature, 
refreshing  and  controlling  the  perishable  flesh  by  food  and 
drink,  in  the  former  He  performed  the  act  supernaturally  by 
way  of  dispensation,  to  inspire  the  disciples,  and  through  them 
all  the  faithful,  with  the  belief  that  the  body  that  suffered  and 
was  crucified  rose  again  from  the  dead,  the  same  and  not  a 
different  body,  although  it  had  been  transformed  and  had 
become  incorruptible  and  impassible.  Having  laid  down  these 
doctrines  in  a  manner  acceptable  to  God,  Eusebius  finishes 
his  tenth  book.  The  style  is  clear,  simple,  pure,  and 
characterized  by  distinctness  where  it  is  required. 

^  From  (pdaprSs  (corruptible)  and  Aorpefa  (worship).     They  held  that  the 
human  body  oif  Christ  was  subject  to  ordinary  natural  corruption. 
^  Who  believe  in  a  passible  Christ. 


GALEN  239 

CLXIII 

Read  the  work  of  Vindanius  Anatolius  of  Berytus,^  entitled 
A  Collectioii  of  Agricultural  Frecepls,  compiled  by  him  from 
the  works  of  Democritus  Africanus,  Tarantinus,  Apuleius, 
Plorentius,  Valens,  Leo,  and  Pamphilus,  and  the  Paradoxa  of 
Diophanes.^  It  is  in  twelve  volumes,  and,  as  our  own  experi- 
ence has  shown  us  in  many  instances,  is  useful  for  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  land  and  agricultural  works,  perhaps  the  most  useful 
of  all  treatises  on  the  same  subject.  However,  it  contains 
some  marvellous  and  incredible  tales,  full  of  Greek  fables, 
which  the  pious  husbandman  should  pass  over  while  gathering 
up  what  is  useful  in  the  rest  of  the  work.  All  other  writers  on 
agricultural  matters,  so  far  as  I  know,  express  nearly  the  same 
opinions  about  the  same  things  and  differ  little  from  one 
another ;  where  they  do,  the  experience  of  Leo  is  to  be 
preferred  to  all  the  rest. 

CLXIV 

Read  the  work  of  Galen  ^  On  Medical  Schools.  The  author, 
discussing  the  schools  that  have  been  formed  in  the  medical 
profession,  declares  that  the  three  chief  are  :  the  logical,  which 
he  also  calls  dogmatic  and  analogistic ;  the  empirical,  also 
called  observant  or  memorial ;  the  methodical.  They  differ 
in  the  method  of  invention  and  in  other  respects.  The 
dogmatic  physician  bases  his  art  upon  the  use  of  methods 
of  reasoning  for  the  discovery  of  remedies  ;  the  empirical  relies 
upon  experiment  and  observation ;  the  methodical,  while  pro- 
fessing to  employ  both  reasoning  and  experiment,  makes  no 
careful  use  of  either,  and  is  rightly  distinguished  from  the  other 
two. 

The  present  work  is  divided  into  three  sections.  The  first 
contains  a  description  of  the  empiric  and  dogmatic  schools, 

^  Fourth  or  fifth  century  a.d.  About  the  middle  of  the  tenth  century  a 
selection  was  made  from  it  and  similar  works  by  command  of  the  emperor 
Constantine  Porphyrogenitus. 

2  Of  Nicaea,  lived  in  the  time  of  Cicero.  The  statement  that  he  wrote  a 
volume  on  Paradoxa  is  probably  an  error. 

^  Claudius  Galenus,  a.d.  129-199,  the  most  celebrated  physician  of 
antiquity.  Born  at  Pergamum,  he  studied  at  Alexandria,  and  was  sum- 
moned to  Rome  by  Marcus  Aurelius,  who  had  the  greatest  confidence  in 
him.  He  wrote  numerous  treatises  on  medicine  and  other  scientific 
subjects,  grammar,  and  literary  criticism. 


240  HIMERIUS 

and  sets  forth  the  nature  of  each ;  the  second  introduces  these 
two  schools  hotly  discussing  their  respective  claims  to  superior- 
ity ;  the  third  introduces  the  methodical  school  quarrelling 
with  the  other  two,  each  of  them  putting  forward  its  own 
claims  and  endeavouring  to  overthrow  its  rival.  With  this  the 
third  book  ends. 

It  is  evident  that  this  work  should  be  preferred  to  all  other 
medical  writings,  if  one  would  learn  which  is  the  best  school 
to  belong  to.  But  it  cannot  properly  be  regarded  as  a  medical 
work,  but  rather  as  a  philosophical  introduction  to  medicine. 
The  diction  and  composition  are  pure  and  distinct ;  Galen 
everywhere  pays  especial  attention  to  these  qualities,  although 
in  many  works  he  confuses  and  obscures  the  meaning  of  what 
he  has  written  by  overloading  his  treatises  with  unseasonable 
discourses,  digressions,  and  spun-out  periods.  These  seem,  as 
it  were,  to  chop  up  the  context,  and  his  tedious  nonsense 
makes  the  reader  indifferent.  The  present  treatise,  however, 
is  free  from  these  faults. 

CLXV 

Read  the  Declamations  ^  and  Various  Discourses  of  Himerius 
the  sophist.^  Two  of  the  former  are  deliberative,  and  three 
forensic,  all  with  introductions.  Of  the  deliberative  speeches 
the  first  is  supposed  to  be  delivered  by  Hyperides  in  support 
of  Demosthenes,  the  second  by  Demosthenes,  on  behalf  of 
Aeschines.  Of  the  other  three,  the  first  is  in  the  form  of  an 
attack  on  Epicurus,  who  is  supposed  to  be  on  trial  for  impiety; 
the  second  is  written  against  a  rich  man  who  had  exhausted 
the  substance  of  a  poor  man  by  his  abominable  actions,  and 
introduces  the  poor  man  pleading  his  cause ;  in  the  third 
Themistocles  declaims  against  the  king  of  Persia,  who  had 
made  many  promises  in  the  hope  of  ending  the  war.^ 

These  speeches,  more  than  the  others,  are  written  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  show  what  can  be  done  by  excellence  of  style  and 

^  MeAera^,  elaborate  fictitious  speeches  written  for  practice  in  the  schools 
of  rhetoric. 

'  Born  at  Prusa  c.  A.  D.  315,  died  c.  386.  Lived  at  the  court  of  the 
Emperor  Julian  and  after  his  death  at  Athens.  He  was  the  teacher  of 
Gregory  of  Nazianziis  and  Basil.  Of  the  twenty-four  extant  Declamations 
some  are  school  exercises,  others  inaugural  orations  [see  Cod.  CCXLIII). 

^  Themistocles  dissuaded  the  Athenians  from  accepting  his  offers. 


HIMERIUS  241 

brilliancy  and  vigour  of  ideas.  The  author  often  heaps  up 
periods/  in  imitation  of  Demosthenes,  in  a  variety  of  forms ; 
although  he  specially  affects  an  elevated  style,  he  cleverly 
modifies  his  language  by  introducing  other  forms.  His  diction, 
at  least  in  the  matter  of  phraseology  and  the  meaning  and  the 
force  of  words,  is  by  no  means  wanting  in  perspicuity.  The 
frequent  breaking  up  of  words  sounds  strange  to  the  ear  but  is 
not  disagreeable,  although  it  renders  the  sense  less  intelligible 
to  the  ordinary  reader.  Another  reason  for  the  author's 
general  clearness  of  style  is  that  he  uses  expressions  that 
make  for  distinctness.  As  I  have  said,  he  uses  heaped-up 
periods  in  argumentation  ^  and  at  other  times,  but  by  illumin- 
ating them  by  vigorous  ^  figures  of  speech  he  clears  his  language 
of  any  obscurity  that  might  arise  from  them.  He  makes 
frequent  and  clever  use  of  hyperbaton  *  and  other  figures 
of  speech,  although  not  to  the  same  extent  as  of  periods. 
He  is  vehement  and  earnestly  vigorous  where  needed.  Such 
he  shows  himself  in  the  speeches  mentioned. 

Next  to  these  speeches  comes  the  Pole?narchicus,  a  eulogy  of 
those  who  fell  in  battle  fighting  for  freedom  against  the  Persians, 
and  also  in  praise  of  war ;  the  Areopagiticus^  claiming  citizen- 
ship for  his  son  Rufinus,  not  a  fictitious  declamation;  a 
monody  on  the  death  of  the  same  son ;  on  the  marriage  of  his 
friend  Severus,  also  obviously  not  fictitious,  with  an  intro- 
duction ;  Diogefics  or  Propempticiis^  a  send-off  speech,  also 
furnished  with  an  introduction,  and  written  in  the  form  of 
a  dialogue:  Syntaderiiis,  a  farewell  speech  to  his  friends  on 
starting  for  Corinth ;  a  Frope77ipterius  to  Flavian,  on  his 
promotion  to  the  consulship  of  Asia;  to  a  new  student  named 
Piso ;  another  Diogenes  or  Frope?npticus ;  an  impromptu^ 
on  a  dispute  which  arose  in  the  school ;  on  the  arrival  of  some 

*  The  word  used  (-n-ept^SoATJ)  expresses  the  combination  in  a  single  period 
of  a  variety  of  diction,  sentiments,  and  figures  of  speech.  The  Latin 
equivalent  is  circumduct  a  or  chrumjecta  oi'atio :  cp.  Quintilian,  ix.  4,  124: 
cum  sensus  unus  longiore  ambitu  circumducitur  ("when  a  single  thought  is 
drawn  out  by  a  lengthy  period  "). 

2  Alrtokoyla,  giving  the  causes  or  reasons  of  things. 

^  ropy6s,  "vigorous,"  "fiery,"  opposed  to  "languid,"  "spiritless." 

*  The  inversion  of  the  usual  order  of  words  or  clauses  in  a  sentence, 
chiefly  for  the  sake  of  emphasis. 

^  A  send-ofiF  speech  (like  Propempterius). 
^  2xe'5tof,  a  short  extempore  discourse. 

VOL.  I.  Q 


242  HIMERIUS 

Cyprians ;  on  his  first  hearer  from  Cappadocia ;  a  show-speech,^ 
which  he  at  first  refused  to  deHver  when  asked,  in  which  the 
thesis  "Beautiful  things  are  rare"  is  discussed;  on  Musonius, 
proconsul  of  Greece ;  on  the  new  pupil  Severus,  who  came  on 
the  scene  during  the  scuffle;^  a  short  address;^  on  count 
Ursacius ;  on  another  Severus ;  on  Scylacius,  proconsul  of 
Greece ;  on  some  new  pupils,  Ephesians  and  Mysians  and 
citizens  of  Leon ;  *  on  companions  from  his  fatherland ;  on 
count  Athenaeus ;  on  the  Roman  Privatus,  tutor  of  the  son  of 
Ampelius  the  proconsul;  on  his  return  from  Corinth;  on 
Phoebus  the  son  of  Alexander  the  proconsul ;  on  count 
Arcadius  a  physician.  Hortatory  speech  to  his  pupils  just 
arrived  and  a  propemptic  to  Plavian ;  on  the  marriage  of 
Panathenaeus ;  two  short  addresses  ;  a  discourse  ^  when  leaving 
Philippi  in  obedience  to  a  summons  from  the  emperor  Julian ; 
an  oration  delivered  in  Constantinople  on  the  city  itself,  the 
emperor  Julian,  and  the  rites  of  Mithras;  a  discourse  on  the 
prefect  Sallust,  with  an  argument ;  on  the  proconsul  Flavian ; 
on  his  friend's  birthday;  short  address  on  his  friend's  re- 
covery ;  on  intriguers ;  on  Basil  the  proconsul  (two) ;  on 
Hermogenes,  Plocianus,  Ampelius,  Praetextatus,  proconsuls  of 
Greece,  and  their  companions ;  on  his  departure  to  the  emperor 
Julian ;  speech  delivered  in  Nicomedia  at  the  exhortation 
of  Pompeianus  the  prefect;  a  speech  on  the  new  students; 
on  a  new  student ;  on  his  companion  Zeno ;  on  Aphobinus,  a 
new  student ;  on  one  who  entered  the  school  in  consequence 
of  an  oracle  of  Poseidon ;  on  those  who  had  arrived  from 
Ionia ;  on  the  Ionian  strangers ;  an  extempore  oration  to  his 
hearers ;  a  speech  in  honour  of  a  friend  in  Constantinople ; 
a  discussion  with  his  pupils  after  his  return  from  his 
country ;  an  extempore  oration  on  his  (poor)  lecture-room ; 
rebuke  of  those  who  listened  indifferently  to  speeches ;  an 
extempore  speech  on  some  who  attended  his  lectures  and  were 
inclined  to  be  restive ;  on  Cytianus  and  his  companions  who 

^  'E7ri5ej|is,  a  speech  delivered  in  the  theatre  or  a  public  place  to  exhibit 
the  composer's  rhetorical  powers. 

^  In  the  school.  To  read  Su^ttAtj^ciSi  (with  capital  2)  and  translate 
*' prefect  of  Symplegada  "  seems  absurd. 

'  Aa\jct,  a  short  complimentary  address  to  a  real  personage. 

^  The  text  cannot  be  right  (tou  KkovTos).  ToG  Xiyovros,  **  of  the 
speaker"  {i.e.  Himeiius  himself)  is  another  reading. 

'  AfciAe^is,  a  private  lecture  or  dissertation  for  the  instruction  of  pupils. 


HIMERIUS  243 

behaved  in  a  disorderly  manner  when  he  was  speaking  extem- 
pore ;  exhortation  on  the  necessity  of  endeavouring  to  secure 
variety  in  discourse ;  discussion  after  the  healing  of  his  wound  ;^ 
a  speech  after  his  return  from  Corinth  ;  on  the  stykis  (pencil) 
and  his  pupils  ;  on  Amyclae,  a  city  of  the  Lacedaemonians, 
which,  in  obedience  to  a  dream,  he  visited  to  offer  prayer  to 
the  God ;  that  lectures  should  not  be  delivered  in  public ; 
speech  on  the  necessity  of  taking  exercise ;  another  speech 
delivered  at  Corinth. ^ 

1  think  that  these  are  all  the  orations  of  Himerius,  nearly 
seventy  in  number,  which  you  patiently  and  laboriously  read 
while  I  was  present.  In  all  of  them,  while  preserving  the  same 
type  of  diction  and  the  same  kind  of  style,  he  uses  heaped-up 
periods  and  figures  of  speech  in  such  a  manner  that  a  feeling 
of  satiety  is  prevented  by  their  cleverness  and  the  way  in 
which  they  are  adapted.  So  far  as  I  know,  I  am  of  opinion 
that  no  one  has  ever  used  figures  of  speech  so  admirably  or 
pleasantly.  His  writings  are  full  of  all  kinds  of  historical  and 
mythical  examples,  either  for  purposes  of  demonstration,  or  for 
drawing  parallels,  or  for  affording  pleasure,  or  for  the  embellish- 
ment of  the  subjects  discussed,  by  which  he  guides  aright  and 
diversifies  his  language,  and  by  which  his  exordia,  epilogues, 
and  arguments  are  constructed.  He  also  often  gives  a  prelim- 
inary outline  of  the  matter  and  manner  of  the  discussion.  But 
while  such  is  the  character  of  his  orations,  it  is  obvious  that  he 
held  impious  views  on  religion  and  imitates  the  dogs  who  yelp 
against  us  in  secret.  He  flourished  in  the  time  of  Constantius 
and  the  most  impious  Julian,  and  was  head  of  the  rhetorical 
school  at  Athens. 

*  Received  during  the  dislurhance  {(TvuTrX'qyds)  in  the  school. 

2  See  also  the  Eclogas  by  Phoiius  (Cod.  CCXLIII)  and  the  Oratioiies, 
ed.  F.  Diibner  in  the  Didot  series  (Paris,  1849). 


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*2.  Berakhoth.     By  the  Rev.  A.  LuKYN  Williams,  D.D. 

*3.  Yoma.     By  the  Rev.  Canon  Box. 

*4.  Shabbath.     By  W.  O.  E.  Oesterley,  D.D. 

*5.  Tractate  Sanhedrin.     Mishnah  and  Tosefta. 

The  Judicial  procedure  of  the  Jews  as  codified  towards 
the  end  of  the  second  century  a.d.  Translated  from 
the  Hebrew,  with  brief  Annotations,  by  the  Rev. 
Herbert  Danby,  M.A.,  Sub-Warden  of  St.  Deiniol's 
Library,  Hawarden.     65".  net. 

[The    special    importance    of   this    consists  in    the    light 
thrown  by  it  on  the  trial  of  our  Lord.] 

*6.  Kimhi's     Commentary     on     the     Psalms 

(Book  I,  Selections).  By  the  Rev.  R.  G.  Finch, 
B.D.     7^.  6d.  net. 

7.  Tamid  11.  MegiUa 

8.  Aboda  Zara  12.  Sukka 

9.  Middoth  13.  Taanith 

10.  Sopherim  14.  Megillath  Taanith 

*  It  is  proposed  to  publish  these  texts  first  by  way  of  experiment.  If 
the  Series  should  so  far  prove  successful  the  others  will  follow.  Nos.  i, 
5  and  6  are  now  ready. 

5 


Translations  of  Early  Documents  (continued) 

Jewish  Literature  and  Christian  Origins : 

Vol.  I.    The  Apocalyptic  Literature. 

,,    II.     A  Short   Survey  of  the   Literature   of 
Rabbinical  and  Mediaeval  Judaism. 

By  W.    O.   E.  Oesterley,   M.A.,   D.D.,  and    G.  H. 
Box,  M.A.,  D.D. 

The  Uncanonical  Jewish  Books 

A  Short  Introduction  to  the  Apocrypha  and  the  Jewish 

Writings  200  B.c.-A.D.  100.   By  William  John  Ferrar, 

M.A.,  Vicar  of  East  Finchley.     3^.  net. 

A  popularisation  of  the  work  of  specialists  upon  these  books,  which 
have  attracted  so  much  attention. 


Translations  of  Christian   Literature 

General  Editors :  • 

W.  J.  SPARROW  SIMPSON,  D.D. ;  W.  K.  LOWTHER  CLARKE,  B.D. 

A  NUMBER  of  translations  from  the  Fathers  have  already 
■^^^  been  published  by  the  S.P.C.K.  under  the  title  "Early 
Church  Classics."  It  is  now  proposed  to  enlarge  this  series 
to  include  texts  which  are  neither  "  early "  nor  necessarily 
"  classics."  The  divisions  at  present  proposed  are  given  below. 
Volumes  belonging  to  the  original  series  are  marked  with  an 
asterisk. 

The  Month  says  :  "The  cheap  and  useful  series." 

The  Church  Times  says  :  *'The  splendid  series." 

Studies  says  :  "  For  the  intelligent  student  of  Church  history  who 
cannot  afford  to  be  a  specialist  .  .  .  such  books  abound  in  informa- 
tion and  suggestion." 

SERIES   I.— GREEK  TEXTS. 

Dionysius  the  Areopagite :  The  Divine  Names  and 
the  Mystical  Theology.  By  the  late  C.  E.  Rolt. 
js.  6d.  net. 

The  Library  of  Photius.     By  J.  H.  Freese.     In  6  Vols. 

Vol.  I.     los.  net. 

6 


Translations  of  Christian  Literature  (continued) 

SERIES    I.— GREEK   TEXTS  {continued). 

The    Apocriticus    of     Macarius     Magnes.      By   T.   W. 

Crafer,  D.D.     7J-.  (id.  net. 

^The  Epistle  of  St.  Clement,  Bishop  of  Rome.     By  the 

Rt.  Rev.  J.  A.  F.  Gregg,  D.D.     \s.  3^.  net. 

^Clement  of  Alexandria :  Who  is  the  Rich  Man  that 
is  being  saved  ?    By  P.  M.  Barnard,  B.D.    i^.  3^.  net. 

^St.  Chrysostom  :  On  the  Priesthood.  ByT.  A.  Moxon. 
25.  net. 

^The  Doctrine  of  the  Twelve  Apostles.  By  C.  Bigg, 
D.D.     \s.  2,d.  net. 

^The  Epistle  to  Diognetus.  By  the  Rt.  Rev.  L.  B. 
Radford,  D.D.     is.  6d.  net. 

St.   Dionysius  of  Alexandria.     By  C.  L.  Feltoe,  D.D. 
35.  6d.  net. 

*The  Epistle  of  the  Galilean  Churches :  Lugfdunum 
and  Vienna.  With  an  Appendix  containing  Tertullian's 
Address  to  Martyrs  and  the  Passion  of  St.  Perpetua.  By 
T.  H.  Bindley,  D.D.     is.  3^.  net. 

^St.    Greg^ory   of   Nyssa :    The    Catechetical    Oration. 

By  the  Ven.  J.  H.  Srawley,  D.D.     2s.  net. 

^St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa:  The  Life  of  St.  Macrina.     By 

W.  K.  Lowther  Clarke,  B.D.     15.  3^.  net. 

Gregory  Thaumaturgus  (Origen  the  Teacher):  the 
Address  of  Gregory  to  Origen,  with  Origen's 
Letter  to  Gregory.    By  W.  Metcalfe,  B.D. 

■^The  Shepherd  of  Hermas.  By  C.  Taylor,  D.D.  2  vols. 
25.  each  net. 

Eusebius :  The  Proof  of  the  Gospel.     By  W.  J.  Ferrar, 

2  vols. 
Hippolytus :   Philosophumena.     By  F.  Legge.     2  vols. 

The  Epistles  of  St.  Ignatius.  By  the  Ven.  J.  H. 
Srawley,  D.D.     4^.  net. 

7 


Translations  of  Christian  Literature  (continued) 

SERIES    I.— GREEK   TEXTS    {continued). 

^St.  Irenaeus:  Against  the  Heresies.  By  F.  R.  M. 
Hitchcock,  D.D.     2  vols.     2s.  each  net. 

Palladius :  The  Lausiac  History.  By  W.  K.  Lowther 
Clarke,  B.D.     55.  net. 

Palladius:  The  Life  of  St.  Chrysostom.     By  H.  Moore. 

*St.  Polycarp.     By  B.  Jackson.     \s.  ^d.  net. 

SERIES   II.— LATIN  TEXTS. 

Tertullian's  Treatises  concerning  Prayer,  concerning 
Baptism.     By  A.  Souter,  D.Litt.     3^.  net. 

Tertullian  against  Praxeas.  By  A.  Souter,  D.Litt. 
5^.  net. 

Novatian  on  the  Trinity.     By  H.  Moore.     6s.  net. 

*St.  Augustine:  The  City  of  God.  By  F.  R.  M.  Hitch- 
cock, D.D.     i^.  6d.  net. 

*St.  Cyprian :  The  Lord's  Prayer.  By  T.  H.  Bindley, 
D.D.     ij-.  6d.  net. 

Minucius    Felix:    The    Octavius.      By   J.   H.   Freese. 
3^.  6d.  net. 

^Tertullian :  On  the  Testimony  of  the  Soul  and  On 
the  Prescription  of  Heretics.  By  T.  H.  Bindley, 
D.D.     2S.  net. 

*St.  Vincent  of  Lerins :  The  Commonitory.     By  T.  H. 

Bindley,  D.D.     2s.  net. 

St.  Bernard :  On  Grace  and  Free  Will.  By  W.  Watkin 
Williams. 

SERIES   III.— LITURGICAL  TEXTS. 

Edited  by  C.  L.  FELTOE,  D.D. 

St.  Ambrose:   On  the  Mysteries  and  on  the  Sacra- 
ments.    By  T.  Thompson,  B.D,,  and  J.  H.  Srawley, 

D.D.     4s.  6d.  net. 

8 


Translations  of  Christian  Literature  (continued) 

SERIES    III.— LITURGICAL   TEXTS    {continued). 

''^The  Apostolic  Constitution  and  Cognate  Documents, 
with  special  reference  to  their  Liturgical  elements. 

By  De  Lacy  O'Leary,  D.D.     is,  ^d.  net. 

"^The  Liturgy  of  the  Eighth  Book  of  the  Apostolic 
Constitution,  commonly  called  the  Clementine 
Liturgy.     By  R.  H.  Cresswell.     15-.  6^.  net. 

The  Pilgrimage  of  Etheria.    By  M.  L.  McClure.   ds.  net. 

*Bishop  Sarapion's  Prayer=Book.  By  the  Rt.  Rev.  J. 
Wordsworth,  D.D.     is.  6d.  net. 

SERIES    IV.— ORIENTAL   TEXTS. 
The  Ethiopic  Didascalia.    By  J.  M.  Harden,  B.D.,  LL.D. 

The  Apostolic  Preaching  of  Irenaeus  (Armenian).     By 

J.  A.  Robinson,  D.D. 

SERIES   v.— LIVES   OF  THE    CELTIC   SAINTS. 

Edited  by  ELEANOR   HULL. 

St.    Malachy   of    Armagh    (St.    Bernard).      By   H.   J. 

Lawlor,  D.D. 

St.  Ciaran  of  Clonmacnois.     By  R.  A.  S.  Macalister. 
St.  Patrick:   Life  and  Works.    By  N.  D.  J.  White,  D.D. 

SERIES  IX.— SELECT  PASSAGES. 

Documents  Illustrative  of  the  History  of  the  Church. 

Vol.   L     To  A.D.   313.     Edited  by  B.   J.    Kidd,   D.D. 

yi-.  6d.  net. 


Handbooks  of  Christian  Literature 

The  Letters  of  St.  Augustine.  By  W.  J.  Sparrow- 
Simpson,  D.D.     Cloth  boards,   loi'.  net. 

The  Early  Christian  Books :  A  Short  Introduction 
to  Christian  Literature  to  the  Middle  of  the  Second 
Century.  By  W.  John  Ferrar,  M.A.,  Vicar  of  East 
Finchley.     Cloth  boards,  35-.  6d.  net. 

The  Inspiration  and  Authority  of  Holy  Scripture  ; 
A  Study  in  the  Literature  of  the  First  Five 
Centuries.  By  George  Duncan  Barry,  B.D.  Cloth 
boards,  4^.  6d.  net. 

The  Eucharistic  Office  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

By  the  Rev.  Leslie  Wright,  M.A.,  B.D.     Cloth  boards, 
2,5.  6d.  net. 


Helps  for  Students  of  History 

Edited  by 

C.  JOHNSON,  M.A.,  H.  W.  V.  TEMPERLEY,  M.A. 
and  J.  p.  WHITNEY,  D.D.,  D.C.L. 

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by  well-known  specialists  should  be  in  the  hands  of  serious  students 
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The  Guardian  says  :  "  This  is  a  remarkable  series.  .  .  A  number 
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1.  Episcopal   Registers  of   England   and   Wales.     By 

R.  C.  Fowler,  B.A.,  F.S.A.     6d.  net. 

2.  Municipal  Records.     By  F.  J.  C.  Hearnshaw,  M.A. 

td.  net. 

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Poole,  LL.D.,  Litt.D.     6d.  net. 

4.  The  Public  Record  Office.  By  C.  Johnson,  M.A.  6d,  net. 

5.  The  Care  of  Documents.   By  C.Johnson,  M.A.  6^.  net. 

6.  The  Logic  of  History.     By  C.  G.  Crump.     8^.  net. 

10 


Helps  for  Students  of  History  (continued). 

7.  Documents   in  the   Public   Record   Office,   Dublin. 

By  R.  H.  Murray,  Litt.D.     8^.  net. 

8.  The  French  Wars  of  Religion.    By  Arthur  A.  Tilley, 

M.A.     6d.  net. 

By  Sir  A.  W.  WARD,  Litt.D.,  F.B.A. 

9.  The  Period  of  Congresses — I.  Introductory.    8^.  net. 

10.  The    Period    of    Congresses — II.  Vienna    and   the 

5econd  Peace  of  Paris,     i^.  net. 

11.  The    Period    of    Congresses— III.    Aix=la=Chapelle 

to  Verona.     li^.  net. 
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12.  Securities   of    Peace:    A    Retrospect    (i 848-1914). 

Paper,  2s.  net ;  cloth,  y.  net. 


13.  The   French    Renaissance.    By  A.  A.  Tilley,   M.A. 

Sd.  net. 

14.  Hints  on  the  Study  of  English  Economic  History. 

By  W.  Cunningham,  D.D.,  F.B.A.,  F.S.A.,  Sd.  net. 

15.  Parish    History    and    Records.     By    A.    Hamilton 

Thompson,  M.A.,  F.S.A.     Sd.  net. 

16.  A   Short   Introduction   to   the   Study   of   Colonial 

History.     By  A.  P.  Newton,  M.A.,  D.Litt.     6d.  net. 

17.  The  Wanderings  and  Homes  of  Manuscripts.     By 

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boards,  35.  net. 

18.  Ecclesiastical  Records.    By  the  Rev.  Claude  Jenkins, 

M.A.,  Librarian  of  Lambeth  Palace. 

II 


Helps  for  Students  of  History  {continued), 

19.  An    Introduction    to    the    History    of    American 

Diplomacy.  By  Carl  Russell  Fish,  Ph.D.,  Pro- 
fessor of  American  History  in  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,     is.  net. 

20.  Hints   on   Translation   from    Latin   into    English. 

By  Alexander  Souter,  D.Litt.     6d,  net. 

21.  Hints  on  the  Study  of    Latin  (a.D.   125-750).     By 

Alexander  Souter,  D.Litt.     Sd.  net. 

22.  Report   of   the  Historical  MSS.   Commission.     By 

R.  A.  Roberts,  F.R.Hist.S.,  sometime  Secretary  of 
the  Commission. 

23.  A  Guide  to  Franciscan  Studies.     By  A.  G.  Little. 

24.  A  Guide  to  the   History   of    Education.     By  John 

William  Adamson,  Professor  of  Education  in  the 
University  of  London.     8d.  net. 

25.  Introduction   to   the   Study   of    Russian    History, 

By  W.  F.  Reddaway.     6d.  net. 

26.  Monuments    of    Eng-lish    Municipal    Life.     By  W. 

Cunningham,  D.D.,  F.B.A. 


The  Story  of  the  English  Towns 

A  Series  of   Popular   but    Scholarly    Histories  of  English 

Towns,  designed  primarily  for  the  general  reader,  but  suitable 

also  for  use  in  schools.     With  Maps,  Plans,  and  Illustrations. 

Cloth  boards.     35-.  6d.  net. 

The  Yorkshire  Post  says  :   "  A  picturesque  history  of  Yorkshire's 
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Leeds.       By   J.    S.    Fletcher,    Member   of  the   Yorkshire 
Archaeological  Society. 

Peterborough.     By  K.  and  R.  E.  Roberts.   - 

12 


The  Story  of  the  English  Towns  {continued), 

Sheffield.     By  J.  S.  Fletcher. 

Westminster.     By  H.  F.  Westlake,  M.A.,   F.S.A.,    Cus- 
todian and  Minor  Canon  of  Westminster  Abbey. 

In  the  Press — 

Harrogate  Birmingham  Nottingham 

Pontefract         Halifax  Plymouth 

St.  Albans,  etc. 


Studies  in  Church  History 

The  Venerable  Bede :   His  Life  and  Writings.     By  the 

Right  Rev.  G.  F.  Browne,  D.D.,  formerly  Bishop  of 
Stepney  and  of  Bristol.  With  Illustrations.  Cloth 
boards,  loj-.  net. 

The  Morning  Post  says:  **The  final  and  complete  history  of  the 
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Legislation.      By   Henry   Hollow  ay,   M.A.,   B.D. 

Cloth  boards,   'js.   6d.  net. 

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the  Christian  Religion.  By  Edward  J.  Martin, 
B.D.,  formerly  Scholar  of  Oriel  College,  Oxford.  Cloth 
boards,  3^.  6d.  net. 

The  Importance  of  Women  in  Anglo= Saxon  Times; 
The  Cultus  of  St.  Peter  and  5t.  Paul,  and  other 
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With  two  Illustrations.     Cloth  boards,  "js.  6d.  net. 

The  Guardian  says:  "Deserves  to  be  widely  read  both  for  the 
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13 


Studies  in  Church  History  (continued). 

Essays  Liturgical  and  Historical.    By  J.  Wickham  Legg, 

D.Litt.,  F.S.A.     Cloth  boards,  ^s.  net. 

The  English  Historical  Review  says  :  "  Scholars  and  antiquaries 
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French  Catholics  in  the  Nineteenth  Century.     By  the 

Rev.  W,  J.  Sparrow  Simpson,  D.D.     Cloth  boards, 

^s.  net. 

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With  eight  Illustrations.     Cloth  boards,  33".  6d.  net. 

The  Westminster  Gazette  says:  "His  career  bristles  with  inter- 
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he  showed  himself  to  be  very  distinctly  a  member  of  the  Church 
Mihtant." 


Texts  for  Students 

General  Editors:  CAROLINE  A.  J.  SKEEU  D.Ut.;  H.  J.  WHITE,  D.D.; 

J.  P.  WHITNEY.  D.D.,  D.C.L. 

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1.  Select  Passages  from  Josephus,  Tacitus,  Suetonius, 

Dio  Cassius,  illustrative  of  Christianity  in  the  First 
Century.  Arranged  by  H.  J.  White,  D.D.  Paper 
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D.Lit.     Paper  cover,  gd,  net. 

3.  Selections  from  Giraldus  Cambrensis.     By  C.  A.  J. 

Skeel,  D.Lit.     Paper  cover,  gd.  net. 

14 


Texts  for  Students  {continued). 

4.  Libri    5ancti    Patricii.      The    Latin    Writings    of    St. 

Patrick,  etc.     Edited  by  Newport  J.  D.  White,  D.D. 
Paper  cover,  6d.  net. 

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6d.  net. 

8.  Select  Extracts  from  Chronicles  and  Records  re= 

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Edited,    with    Introduction,    Notes,   and    Glossary,   by 
F.  J.  C.'Hearnshaw,  M.A.,  LL.D.   Paper  cover,  9^.  net. 

9.  The  Inscription  on  the  Stele  of  Mesa.     Commonly 

called  the  Moabite  Stone.     The  text  in  Moabite  and 
Hebrew,  with  translation  by  the  Rev.  H.  F.  B.  Compston 
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10.  The    Epistles   of    St.    Ignatius.       Edited   by   T.    W. 

Crafer,  D.D.     IJ-.  net. 

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With  two  Illustrations,      ij".  net. 

12.  Selections  from  the  "  Historia  Rerum  Anglicarum" 

of  William  of  Newburgh.     is.  3^.  net. 

13.  The  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles.     By  T.  W. 

Crafer,  D.D.     4^.  net. 

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D.D.     6d.  net. 

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Percy  Handcock,  M.A.    4^.  net. 

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Itinerarium  Regis  Ricardi.     By  M.  T.  Stead. 

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Roper. 

Slavonic  Settlements  in  Dalmatia.     By  J.  B.  Bury. 

15 


Pioneers  of  Progress 

MEN  OF  SCIENCE  :  Edited  by  S.  Chapman,  M.A.,  D.Sc, 
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Galileo.     By  W.  W.  Bryant,  F.R.A.S.,  Royal  Observatory, 
Greenwich. 

Michael  Faraday.     By  J.  A.  Crowther,  D.Sc. 

Alfred   Russel  Wallace:    The  Story  of  a  Great  Dis  = 
cover.     By  Lancelot  T.  Hogben,  B.A.,  B.Sc. 

Joseph  Priestley.     By  D.  H.  Peacock,  B.A.,  M.Sc,  F.I.C. 

Joseph   Dalton   Hooker,  O.M.,  G.C.S.I.,  C.B.,  F.R.S., 
M.D.,  etc.     By  Professor  F.  O.  Bower,  Sc.D.,  F.R.S. 

Herschel.      By    the    Rev.    Hector    Macpherson,   M.A., 
F.R.A.S.,  F.R.S.E. 

Archimedes.     By  Sir  Thomas  L.  Heath,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S. 

Aristarchus    of    Samos.       By    Sir   Thomas    L.    Heath, 
K.C.B.,  F.R.S. 


WOMEN  :   Edited  by  Ethel  M.  Barton. 
With  Illustrations. 
Florence  Nightingale.     By  E.  F.  Hall. 
Dorothea  Beale.     By  Elizabeth  H.  Shillito,  B.A. 
Elsie  Inglis. 


[12.2.20. 


Printed  in  Great  Britain  by  R.  Clay  ^^  Sons,  Ltd.,  London  and  Bungay. 


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Rerrington  Rand 

nc.  Cat,  no.  1  i  39 

IliHIIIillll 

3  5002  00265 


Photius 

The  library  of  Photius. 


Illlilll 

250 


BR    45    . T6    P5    1920    1 


Photius    I,     ca.     a20-ca.     891 


The  library  of  Photiue